Aquatic sports come second only to track and field in terms of the number of Olympic medals up for grabs. The four disciplines - swimming, diving, waterpolo and synchronised swimming - have 46 events between them, the vast majority of which are in swimming.
It is difficult to find an Olympic sport that has undergone such a dramatic change as swimming. What is now one of the glamour events of the Games takes place in 50-metre, temperature-controlled pools with lane makers designed to reduce turbulence and wave-killing gutters. But conditions at early Olympiads were as a conducive to setting fast times.
Venues included the Bay of Zea (1896), River Seine (1900) and a 100m pool constructed inside the athletics track (1908) and some of the events were even more bizarre - the 100m race for Greek sailors (1896), underwater and obstacle races (1900), and plunge for distance (1908).
In 1908, the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) was founded to unify the rules and women's events were introduced at Stockholm in 1912. The Games now consist of 34 races:
* 50m, 100m, 200m, 400m and 10,000m freestyle for men and women.
* 1,500m freestyle for men.
* 800m freestyle for women.
* 100m and 200m butterfly for men and women.
* 100m and 200m backstroke for men and women.
* 100m and 200m breaststroke for men and women
* 200m and 400m individual medley for men and women.
* 4 x 100m and 4 x 200m freestyle relay for men and women.
* 4 x 100m medley relay for men and women.
A maximum of eight swimmers contest each race and preliminary heats in the 50m, 100m and 200m races lead to semi-finals and finals based on the fastest times. In events covering 400m or more and relays, the eight fastest finishers in the heats go straight to the finals.
Diving is one of the most exhilarating sports at the Games, with platform divers hitting the water at about 55 kilometres an hour. It was introduced to the Olympics in 1904 and the programme did not change between 1924 and 1996. Synchronised diving for pairs was introduced at Sydney in 2000 and there are now eight events, with the traditional 10m platform and 3m springboard diving for men and women repeated in synchronised diving.
Competitors make a series of dives combining somersaults, pikes, tucks and twists and judges mark out of 10, taking approach, take-off, execution and entry into the water into consideration. Points are adjusted depending on the degree of difficulty, based on the type and number of manoeuvres attempted. Synchronised diving is also judged on how the pairs mirror height, distance from the springboard or platform, speed of rotation and entry into the water.
Endurance Sport
Waterpolo players need the endurance to get through four seven-minute quarters of a match without touching the bottom or side of the pool, and can swim up to five kilometres during a game. Passing, dribbling and shooting technique is just as crucial, as is the strength to battle for the ball, with grabbing, holding and kicking not uncommon in a sport where 85 per cent of the body is submerged.
The sport was included in the 1900 Games, with women's waterpolo introduced in 2000. There are 12 teams in the men's competition and eight in the women's.
Synchronised swimming, an exhibition sport from 1948 to 1968, made its full debut at Los Angeles in 1984. It is open only to women, who perform technical and free routines to music in duet and team events. Breath control is key as strenuous manoeuvres are performed underwater and upside down. Underwater speakers let the swimmers hear the music and achieve the split-second timing critical to the event.
Sunday, August 23, 2009
Disciplines and Weight Divisions in Olympic Weightlifting
To the untrained eye, weightlifting can appear a straightforward test of brute strength, but the sport's apparent simplicity is deceptive. Weightlifting is, in fact, an extremely technical sport and requires concentration, timing, speed and power in equal measure.
Weightlifting was one of the sports contested at the first modern Olympics in Athens in 1896, although women's events were not added until the Sydney Games more than a century later.
There are now 15 events on the Olympic programme - eight bodyweight categories for men and seven for women. Men contest under-56 kilogram, 62kg, 69kg, 77kg, 85kg, 94kg, 105kg and over 105kg divisions, and women under-48kg, 53kg, 58kg, 63kg, 69kg, 75kg, and over-75kg divisions. The super heavyweight lifters generally claim the title of strongest man or woman in the world, but kilo for kilo the lighter weightlifters are often the strongest.
Lift Types
Lifters perform two types of lift - the snatch and the clean and jerk. Three attempts are allowed in each, and competitors are classified according to their combined total result. In the snatch, the barbell is lifted from the ground to arm's length above the lifter's head in one movement. In the clean and jerk, the bar is lifted to the shoulders in one movement and then jerked to arm's length above the lifter's head in another.
Lifting weights has been used as a basic means to measure strength and power for centuries and was present in both the ancient Egyptian and Greek societies. It developed as an international sport in the 19th century and the first world championships were held in London five years prior to the first Olympiad.
Pyrros Dimas is one of the most successful Olympic weightlifters of all time. He won Greece's first Olympic weightlifting title since 1904 in the 82.5kg bodyweight category at the Barcelona Games in 1992. Four years later he entered the Atlanta Olympics as the world record holder and broke the world record in both the snatch and the jerk to take the 83kg title, and he completed a hat-trick of gold medals in the 85kg class in Sydney. He added 85kg bronze at Athens in 2004.
Golden Hat-tricks
Fellow Greek athlete Akakios Kakiasvilis matched the three gold medals of Dimas in Barcelona (90kg), Atlanta (99kg) and Sydney (94kg), while Turks Naim Süleymanoglu and Halil Mutlu are also triple Olympic champions. Süleymanoglu's titles came in Seoul (60kg), Barcelona (60kg) and Atlanta (64kg), while Mutlu won in Atlanta (54kg), Sydney (56kg) and Athens (56kg).
Japan's greatest weightlifter, Yoshinobu Miyake, won two Olympic titles - as a featherweight in 1964 and 1968, having taken silver in the bantamweight class in 1960 - and is considered one of the strongest men ever, pound-for-pound. He set 25 world records, including 10 consecutive records in the snatch and nine consecutive overall records in the 60kg class.
The balance of power has shifted several times in Olympic weightlifting. France and Germany were successful at the start of the 20th century, but the USA and Egypt dominated in the late 30s and throughout the 40s. At the start of the 50s the Soviets began a reign that lasted three decades. China, Turkey, Greece and Iran have all had considerable success in recent Games, while China has been dominant in the women's events.
Weightlifting was one of the sports contested at the first modern Olympics in Athens in 1896, although women's events were not added until the Sydney Games more than a century later.
There are now 15 events on the Olympic programme - eight bodyweight categories for men and seven for women. Men contest under-56 kilogram, 62kg, 69kg, 77kg, 85kg, 94kg, 105kg and over 105kg divisions, and women under-48kg, 53kg, 58kg, 63kg, 69kg, 75kg, and over-75kg divisions. The super heavyweight lifters generally claim the title of strongest man or woman in the world, but kilo for kilo the lighter weightlifters are often the strongest.
Lift Types
Lifters perform two types of lift - the snatch and the clean and jerk. Three attempts are allowed in each, and competitors are classified according to their combined total result. In the snatch, the barbell is lifted from the ground to arm's length above the lifter's head in one movement. In the clean and jerk, the bar is lifted to the shoulders in one movement and then jerked to arm's length above the lifter's head in another.
Lifting weights has been used as a basic means to measure strength and power for centuries and was present in both the ancient Egyptian and Greek societies. It developed as an international sport in the 19th century and the first world championships were held in London five years prior to the first Olympiad.
Pyrros Dimas is one of the most successful Olympic weightlifters of all time. He won Greece's first Olympic weightlifting title since 1904 in the 82.5kg bodyweight category at the Barcelona Games in 1992. Four years later he entered the Atlanta Olympics as the world record holder and broke the world record in both the snatch and the jerk to take the 83kg title, and he completed a hat-trick of gold medals in the 85kg class in Sydney. He added 85kg bronze at Athens in 2004.
Golden Hat-tricks
Fellow Greek athlete Akakios Kakiasvilis matched the three gold medals of Dimas in Barcelona (90kg), Atlanta (99kg) and Sydney (94kg), while Turks Naim Süleymanoglu and Halil Mutlu are also triple Olympic champions. Süleymanoglu's titles came in Seoul (60kg), Barcelona (60kg) and Atlanta (64kg), while Mutlu won in Atlanta (54kg), Sydney (56kg) and Athens (56kg).
Japan's greatest weightlifter, Yoshinobu Miyake, won two Olympic titles - as a featherweight in 1964 and 1968, having taken silver in the bantamweight class in 1960 - and is considered one of the strongest men ever, pound-for-pound. He set 25 world records, including 10 consecutive records in the snatch and nine consecutive overall records in the 60kg class.
The balance of power has shifted several times in Olympic weightlifting. France and Germany were successful at the start of the 20th century, but the USA and Egypt dominated in the late 30s and throughout the 40s. At the start of the 50s the Soviets began a reign that lasted three decades. China, Turkey, Greece and Iran have all had considerable success in recent Games, while China has been dominant in the women's events.
Disciplines of Olympic Cycling
Cycling is one of the few sports to have been contested at every Olympics and, although the programme has varied, it now includes track, road, mountain bike and BMX racing. In all, 18 events were disputed in Beijing, the majority of them in the velodrome.
The oval track of the velodrome is banked at 42 degrees and hosts 10 events: the men's sprint, individual pursuit, points race, keirin, Olympic sprint, team pursuit, Madison and women's sprint, individual pursuit and points race.
Aerodynamic bikes offer greater speed than ever, although the pay-off is poorer manoeuvrability that leaves them ill-suited to pack racing. The 1984 Los Angeles Games saw an influx of futuristic bicycles and the spokeless, carbon-fibre disc wheel made its debut.
Technological Revolution
Eight years later in Barcelona, Chris Boardman won Great Britain's first cycling gold medal since 1920. It came in the 4,000metres individual pursuit using a revolutionary bike designed by Mike Burrows and built by Formula One car designers Lotus. Boardman set world records of four minutes 27.357 seconds and 4:24.495 in preliminary rounds and lapped world champion Jens Lehmann of Germany in the final. His bike made full use of carbon-fibre technology and aerodynamic cross-sections, and weighed less than nine kilograms.
At the Sydney Games in 2000, the men's keirin, Madison and Olympic sprint races were introduced, as was the women's 500m time trial, which has since been dropped. The programme includes individual and team events, sprint and endurance races, pursuits, time trials and first-over-the-line finishes.
The Olympic sprint is a three-man team event and two teams compete, starting at opposite ends of the track. The aim is to catch the other team or finish three laps first. The Madison is a mass-start event featuring teams of two riders, although only one rider from each team is on the track at any one time. Points are awarded to the top finishers in intermediate sprints and in the finishing sprint. The keirin is a 2,000m race that builds up in speed behind a motorised derny for the first 1400m and concludes in a furious sprint finish.
Kings of the Road
Road racing, like track racing, was part of the first modern Olympics in 1896, with riders covering two laps of the marathon course in Athens - a total of 87 kilometres. Women had to wait until 1984 to compete and at Atlanta in 1996 time trials were introduced.
Four events are now contested, the men's road race over 239km and the women's over 120km. Road races begin with mass starts, but time trials are raced against the clock with riders starting at 90-second intervals. The men's race is 46.8km, the women's 31.2km.
Mountain biking made its Olympic debut in 1996, although the sport was 20 years old by then. Members of the Velo Club Mount Tamalpais establishing mountain biking when they invented the Repack Downhill race, held regularly between 1976 and 1979 just across the Golden Gate Bridge from San Francisco. By 1990 it had become a truly professional sport, complete with World Championships.
Mountainous Courses
Men's and women's cross-country races are on the Olympic programme. Men race between 40 and 50 kilometres, and women cover 30 to 40km, the exact distances being dependant on weather conditions, with officials aiming for an optimum finishing time of two hours and 15 minutes for the top man, two hours for the top woman. The course is typically very hilly, sometimes mountainous, is usually on natural terrain and riders may have to manoeuvre over rocks, streams and branches.
Bicycle moto cross (BMX) made its debut at the Beijing Games, with one event for men and one for women. BMX started in the late 1960s in California, and had reached Europe by 1978. In April 1981, the International BMX Federation was founded and the first World Championships followed in 1982. Since January 1993, BMX has been fully integrated into the International Cycling Union (UCI).
Races are held on circuits of around 350m including jumps, banked corners and other obstacles. Eight riders contest each heat - qualifying rounds, quarter-finals, semi-finals and finals - with the top four advancing to the next round.
The oval track of the velodrome is banked at 42 degrees and hosts 10 events: the men's sprint, individual pursuit, points race, keirin, Olympic sprint, team pursuit, Madison and women's sprint, individual pursuit and points race.
Aerodynamic bikes offer greater speed than ever, although the pay-off is poorer manoeuvrability that leaves them ill-suited to pack racing. The 1984 Los Angeles Games saw an influx of futuristic bicycles and the spokeless, carbon-fibre disc wheel made its debut.
Technological Revolution
Eight years later in Barcelona, Chris Boardman won Great Britain's first cycling gold medal since 1920. It came in the 4,000metres individual pursuit using a revolutionary bike designed by Mike Burrows and built by Formula One car designers Lotus. Boardman set world records of four minutes 27.357 seconds and 4:24.495 in preliminary rounds and lapped world champion Jens Lehmann of Germany in the final. His bike made full use of carbon-fibre technology and aerodynamic cross-sections, and weighed less than nine kilograms.
At the Sydney Games in 2000, the men's keirin, Madison and Olympic sprint races were introduced, as was the women's 500m time trial, which has since been dropped. The programme includes individual and team events, sprint and endurance races, pursuits, time trials and first-over-the-line finishes.
The Olympic sprint is a three-man team event and two teams compete, starting at opposite ends of the track. The aim is to catch the other team or finish three laps first. The Madison is a mass-start event featuring teams of two riders, although only one rider from each team is on the track at any one time. Points are awarded to the top finishers in intermediate sprints and in the finishing sprint. The keirin is a 2,000m race that builds up in speed behind a motorised derny for the first 1400m and concludes in a furious sprint finish.
Kings of the Road
Road racing, like track racing, was part of the first modern Olympics in 1896, with riders covering two laps of the marathon course in Athens - a total of 87 kilometres. Women had to wait until 1984 to compete and at Atlanta in 1996 time trials were introduced.
Four events are now contested, the men's road race over 239km and the women's over 120km. Road races begin with mass starts, but time trials are raced against the clock with riders starting at 90-second intervals. The men's race is 46.8km, the women's 31.2km.
Mountain biking made its Olympic debut in 1996, although the sport was 20 years old by then. Members of the Velo Club Mount Tamalpais establishing mountain biking when they invented the Repack Downhill race, held regularly between 1976 and 1979 just across the Golden Gate Bridge from San Francisco. By 1990 it had become a truly professional sport, complete with World Championships.
Mountainous Courses
Men's and women's cross-country races are on the Olympic programme. Men race between 40 and 50 kilometres, and women cover 30 to 40km, the exact distances being dependant on weather conditions, with officials aiming for an optimum finishing time of two hours and 15 minutes for the top man, two hours for the top woman. The course is typically very hilly, sometimes mountainous, is usually on natural terrain and riders may have to manoeuvre over rocks, streams and branches.
Bicycle moto cross (BMX) made its debut at the Beijing Games, with one event for men and one for women. BMX started in the late 1960s in California, and had reached Europe by 1978. In April 1981, the International BMX Federation was founded and the first World Championships followed in 1982. Since January 1993, BMX has been fully integrated into the International Cycling Union (UCI).
Races are held on circuits of around 350m including jumps, banked corners and other obstacles. Eight riders contest each heat - qualifying rounds, quarter-finals, semi-finals and finals - with the top four advancing to the next round.
Disciplines of Olympic Fencing
Fencing is one of the few sports to have been contested at every Olympic Games and was the first to allow professionals to compete for medals. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic Games and second president of the International Olympic Committee, arranged ‘masters’ events for professional instructors at the 1896 and 1900 Games.
Originally a form of combat, fencing is depicted in Egyptian carvings that date from around 1190BC in the temple of Medinet-Habu near Luxor. Other ancient civilisations - including Babylonia, China, Greece, Japan and Persia - practised swordplay as training for combat.
Both Germany and Italy lay claim to the origins of fencing as a sport. German fencing masters organised the first guilds in the 15th century, and in 1570 Frenchman Henri Saint-Didier gave names to fencing’s major movements. Sword fights and duels, often bloody and occasionally fatal, were common from the 16th to the 18th century and a variety of weapons were used, including backswords, quarterstaffs and singlesticks.
Injury Risk Foiled
Fencing grew in popularity as a sport in the 17th century when a light practice weapon was developed with a flattened or ‘foiled’ tip that was padded to reduce the risk of injury. The weapon was soon known as the foil. Rules were introduced to limit the target to certain areas of the body, and a wire-mesh mask was worn to protect the face.
Three weapons - foil, épée and sabre - are used at the Olympics. The foil is a light and flexible thrusting weapon, and to score a fencer must hit their opponent’s torso with the point of the weapon. The épée is a heavy thrusting weapon and a hit anywhere on the opponent’s body will score. The sabre is a light cutting and thrusting weapon and a hit anywhere above the waist of an opponent, excluding the back of the head and the hands, will score.
Double hits – that is when both fencer score almost simultaneously – are allowed in épée and both fencers are awarded a point. But in foil and sabre, ‘right of way’ or ‘priority’ rules come into play, and only the fencer on the offensive, as deemed by the referee, will score.
On the Piste
Bouts are held on a 14x1.5-metre piste, or playing area. Fencers are connected to an electronic scoring system that indicates if a hit has occurred. Rivals stand opposite one another and lunge, feint, parry and riposte until one scores the required number of hits.
Women’s foil events were introduced to the Olympic in 1924, with épée events added in 1996 at Atlanta and sabre events eight years later in Athens. Ten events were contested in Beijing – men’s individual and team épée, individual and team sabre, and individual foil, and women’s individual and team foil, individual and team sabre, and individual épée. The men’s team foil, which featured in 21 Games dating back to 1904, was dropped from the Olympic programme for Beijing.
Each event has a direct-elimination format. Three fencers make up a team, and each one duels each member of the opposing team.
Originally a form of combat, fencing is depicted in Egyptian carvings that date from around 1190BC in the temple of Medinet-Habu near Luxor. Other ancient civilisations - including Babylonia, China, Greece, Japan and Persia - practised swordplay as training for combat.
Both Germany and Italy lay claim to the origins of fencing as a sport. German fencing masters organised the first guilds in the 15th century, and in 1570 Frenchman Henri Saint-Didier gave names to fencing’s major movements. Sword fights and duels, often bloody and occasionally fatal, were common from the 16th to the 18th century and a variety of weapons were used, including backswords, quarterstaffs and singlesticks.
Injury Risk Foiled
Fencing grew in popularity as a sport in the 17th century when a light practice weapon was developed with a flattened or ‘foiled’ tip that was padded to reduce the risk of injury. The weapon was soon known as the foil. Rules were introduced to limit the target to certain areas of the body, and a wire-mesh mask was worn to protect the face.
Three weapons - foil, épée and sabre - are used at the Olympics. The foil is a light and flexible thrusting weapon, and to score a fencer must hit their opponent’s torso with the point of the weapon. The épée is a heavy thrusting weapon and a hit anywhere on the opponent’s body will score. The sabre is a light cutting and thrusting weapon and a hit anywhere above the waist of an opponent, excluding the back of the head and the hands, will score.
Double hits – that is when both fencer score almost simultaneously – are allowed in épée and both fencers are awarded a point. But in foil and sabre, ‘right of way’ or ‘priority’ rules come into play, and only the fencer on the offensive, as deemed by the referee, will score.
On the Piste
Bouts are held on a 14x1.5-metre piste, or playing area. Fencers are connected to an electronic scoring system that indicates if a hit has occurred. Rivals stand opposite one another and lunge, feint, parry and riposte until one scores the required number of hits.
Women’s foil events were introduced to the Olympic in 1924, with épée events added in 1996 at Atlanta and sabre events eight years later in Athens. Ten events were contested in Beijing – men’s individual and team épée, individual and team sabre, and individual foil, and women’s individual and team foil, individual and team sabre, and individual épée. The men’s team foil, which featured in 21 Games dating back to 1904, was dropped from the Olympic programme for Beijing.
Each event has a direct-elimination format. Three fencers make up a team, and each one duels each member of the opposing team.
Disciplines of Olympic Gymnastics
Gymnastics is one of the defining sports of the Olympics and has been present at every Games. The sport can be traced back to ancient Greece and similar disciplines were practised in ancient Rome, China, India and Persia, the aim being to prepare young men for battle. In those days the dress requirements for athletes were minimal and the word gymnastics is derived from the Greek word gymnos, meaning naked.
Three disciplines make up the modern Olympic gymnastic programme - artistic, rhythmic and trampoline - offering 18 gold medals between them. The most prestigious and best known of these is artistic gymnastics, performed on an apparatus. It boasts 14 events: the men's floor exercises, horizontal bar, vault, parallel bars, pommel horse, rings, individual all-round and team competition, and the women's balance beam, floor exercises, uneven bars, vault, individual all-round and team competition.
The early Games featured some unusual events, such as rope climbing, tumbling and club swinging, but the Olympic programme began to settle in 1924 and four years later in Amsterdam women began competing at the Games. Nowadays gymnasts require strength, agility, style and grace, and consistently provide many of the most astounding Olympic spectacles.
Korbut Shines
Soviet Olga Korbut produced some of the most memorable displays in 1972 at Munich, where she won gold in the balance beam, floor exercises and women's team competition and silver in the uneven bars. But even Korbut was upstaged four years later in Montreal, despite winning silver in the balance beam and another gold in the women's team competition. Romanian Nadia Comaneci stole the show, winning the individual all-round, uneven bars and balance beam titles, adding silver in the team competition and bronze in the floor exercises.
Even more remarkable than Comaneci's medal haul was the fact the she became the first gymnast in Olympic history to be awarded the perfect score of 10.0. It came on the uneven bars and the judges went on to award her the maximum mark seven times during the Games.
Four years later, in Moscow, Soviet Aleksandr Dityatin became the first male gymnast to achieve a perfect 10. It came in the vault as Dityatin won an incredible eight medals in one Olympic Games, including gold in the individual all-round, rings and team competition.
Golden Rhythm
Rhythmic gymnastics is performed with an apparatus and accompanied by music. The gymnasts, all women, perform on a 13-metre-square floor with rope, hoop, ball, clubs and ribbon. There are two events: the individual all-round and a team competition. In the individual event, gymnasts perform routines with four of the five apparatus. In the team competition, teams of five perform together, once using clubs and once with three using ribbons and two using hoops.
Rhythmic gymnastics incorporates many positions and leaps derived from classical ballet, including pliés, jetés, attitudes and arabesques. It was recognised as an official discipline by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) in 1962 and the individual all-around competition was introduced into the Games in 1984, with the team competition added 12 years later in Atlanta.
Trampoline gymnastics made its debut at the Sydney Games in 2000, featuring both men's and women's individual events. Russians, in the form of Alexander Moskalenko and Irina Karavaeva, took both gold medals.
Three disciplines make up the modern Olympic gymnastic programme - artistic, rhythmic and trampoline - offering 18 gold medals between them. The most prestigious and best known of these is artistic gymnastics, performed on an apparatus. It boasts 14 events: the men's floor exercises, horizontal bar, vault, parallel bars, pommel horse, rings, individual all-round and team competition, and the women's balance beam, floor exercises, uneven bars, vault, individual all-round and team competition.
The early Games featured some unusual events, such as rope climbing, tumbling and club swinging, but the Olympic programme began to settle in 1924 and four years later in Amsterdam women began competing at the Games. Nowadays gymnasts require strength, agility, style and grace, and consistently provide many of the most astounding Olympic spectacles.
Korbut Shines
Soviet Olga Korbut produced some of the most memorable displays in 1972 at Munich, where she won gold in the balance beam, floor exercises and women's team competition and silver in the uneven bars. But even Korbut was upstaged four years later in Montreal, despite winning silver in the balance beam and another gold in the women's team competition. Romanian Nadia Comaneci stole the show, winning the individual all-round, uneven bars and balance beam titles, adding silver in the team competition and bronze in the floor exercises.
Even more remarkable than Comaneci's medal haul was the fact the she became the first gymnast in Olympic history to be awarded the perfect score of 10.0. It came on the uneven bars and the judges went on to award her the maximum mark seven times during the Games.
Four years later, in Moscow, Soviet Aleksandr Dityatin became the first male gymnast to achieve a perfect 10. It came in the vault as Dityatin won an incredible eight medals in one Olympic Games, including gold in the individual all-round, rings and team competition.
Golden Rhythm
Rhythmic gymnastics is performed with an apparatus and accompanied by music. The gymnasts, all women, perform on a 13-metre-square floor with rope, hoop, ball, clubs and ribbon. There are two events: the individual all-round and a team competition. In the individual event, gymnasts perform routines with four of the five apparatus. In the team competition, teams of five perform together, once using clubs and once with three using ribbons and two using hoops.
Rhythmic gymnastics incorporates many positions and leaps derived from classical ballet, including pliés, jetés, attitudes and arabesques. It was recognised as an official discipline by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) in 1962 and the individual all-around competition was introduced into the Games in 1984, with the team competition added 12 years later in Atlanta.
Trampoline gymnastics made its debut at the Sydney Games in 2000, featuring both men's and women's individual events. Russians, in the form of Alexander Moskalenko and Irina Karavaeva, took both gold medals.
Format of Olympic Badminton
For a sport with such ancient roots, badminton has a relatively short Olympic history. It was introduced to the Games as a demonstration sport in 1972 at Munich and made its debut as a full medal sport in 1992 at Barcelona.
Badminton holds the distinction of being the world's fastest racket sport. China's Fu Haifeng had a smash recorded at a speed of 206 miles per hour at the 2005 Sudirman Cup, so lightning-fast reflexes, speed and agility are essential attributes for the leading players. So too is stamina, as players have been known to cover more than six kilometres in a single match.There are five events in Olympic badminton: men's singles and doubles, women's singles and doubles, and mixed doubles. In each, the top eight players or pairs are seeded and medals are decided by an elimination tournament.
Scoring Changes
Players volley a missile of cork and goose feathers across a net 1.55metres high into a court 13.4m long and 6.1m wide. It is played indoors, but a ceiling height of 12m is needed. A match is the best of three games and. The Badminton World Federation, formerly the International Badminton Federation, made changes to the scoring system ahead of the Games in Beijing. Points can now be scored against the serve, and in doubles a team has only one serve instead of two. The first player or pair to 21 points wins the game, although if the score reaches 20-20 a two-point advantage is needed. At 29-29, the first to 30 points wins.
China, Indonesia and Korea have dominated the sport since its Olympic introduction, sharing all but one of the 19 titles up for grabs between 1992 and 2004. Indonesia won both the men's and women's singles titles in Barcelona, but China won eight of the 15 gold medals on offer at the next three Games. This is perhaps fitting as, although the sport in its modern form was founded in England, its earliest predecessors can be traced back to China.
As early as the 5th century BC, the Chinese were playing a game with their feet called Ti Jian Zi, or shuttle-kicking. The shuttlecock was involved, but it is unclear whether or not Ti Jian Zi led to the game of battledore and shuttlecock that arose about five centuries later in China, Japan, India and Greece.
Upper Class Pastime
It had developed into a popular children's game by the 17th century, with the battledore (a kind of paddle) used to keep a shuttlecock (a small feathered cork) in the air as long as possible. Quickly it became a favourite pastime of the upper classes in many European countries and was known as 'jeu de volant' on the continent.
Poona, a game closer to modern badminton, had evolved in India by the mid-19th century. British army officers stationed there added a net set down rules in 1867, and six years later the Duke of Beaufort introduced it to royal society at his country estate, Badminton House in Gloucestershire.
In 1877, the first written rules were laid out by the Bath Badminton Club and 16 years later the Badminton Federation of England was formed. It held the first All England Championships in 1899.
Badminton holds the distinction of being the world's fastest racket sport. China's Fu Haifeng had a smash recorded at a speed of 206 miles per hour at the 2005 Sudirman Cup, so lightning-fast reflexes, speed and agility are essential attributes for the leading players. So too is stamina, as players have been known to cover more than six kilometres in a single match.There are five events in Olympic badminton: men's singles and doubles, women's singles and doubles, and mixed doubles. In each, the top eight players or pairs are seeded and medals are decided by an elimination tournament.
Scoring Changes
Players volley a missile of cork and goose feathers across a net 1.55metres high into a court 13.4m long and 6.1m wide. It is played indoors, but a ceiling height of 12m is needed. A match is the best of three games and. The Badminton World Federation, formerly the International Badminton Federation, made changes to the scoring system ahead of the Games in Beijing. Points can now be scored against the serve, and in doubles a team has only one serve instead of two. The first player or pair to 21 points wins the game, although if the score reaches 20-20 a two-point advantage is needed. At 29-29, the first to 30 points wins.
China, Indonesia and Korea have dominated the sport since its Olympic introduction, sharing all but one of the 19 titles up for grabs between 1992 and 2004. Indonesia won both the men's and women's singles titles in Barcelona, but China won eight of the 15 gold medals on offer at the next three Games. This is perhaps fitting as, although the sport in its modern form was founded in England, its earliest predecessors can be traced back to China.
As early as the 5th century BC, the Chinese were playing a game with their feet called Ti Jian Zi, or shuttle-kicking. The shuttlecock was involved, but it is unclear whether or not Ti Jian Zi led to the game of battledore and shuttlecock that arose about five centuries later in China, Japan, India and Greece.
Upper Class Pastime
It had developed into a popular children's game by the 17th century, with the battledore (a kind of paddle) used to keep a shuttlecock (a small feathered cork) in the air as long as possible. Quickly it became a favourite pastime of the upper classes in many European countries and was known as 'jeu de volant' on the continent.
Poona, a game closer to modern badminton, had evolved in India by the mid-19th century. British army officers stationed there added a net set down rules in 1867, and six years later the Duke of Beaufort introduced it to royal society at his country estate, Badminton House in Gloucestershire.
In 1877, the first written rules were laid out by the Bath Badminton Club and 16 years later the Badminton Federation of England was formed. It held the first All England Championships in 1899.
Format of Olympic Baseball and Softball
Anyone who thought that introducing baseball to the Olympic Games was like giving the USA a licence to produce gold medals was well wide of the mark. Baseball has a long Olympic history as a demonstration sport, featuring at the 1912, 1936, 1956, 1964, 1984 and 1988 Games. The 1952 Helsinki Games even had a demonstration of pesäpallo - Finnish baseball.
But it was not until Barcelona in 1992 that baseball made its debut as a full medal sport, and since then it has been dominated not by the USA, but by Cuba. The Cubans won three of the four baseball gold medals up for grabs between 1992 and 2004, with the USA's only success coming in Sydney in 2000.
Indeed, after being beaten 2-1 by Mexico in the quarter-finals of the American qualifying competition, the USA did not even make it to Athens for the 2004 Games. That was a real surprise, given that baseball's roots can be traced to the United States in the early 19th century.
Based on Rounders
Although it was clearly based on British sports like rounders and cricket that were popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, baseball's first formal professional organisation was the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, formed in the USA in 1871. It was replaced five years later by the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs.
But perhaps Cuba's Olympic success should not be too much of a surprise. After all, Cuba's first professional league was not far behind. It was formed in 1878, only two years after the National League in the USA, and in 1999, Cuba's national team crushed Major League side the Baltimore Orioles 12-6 in an exhibition game.
Baseball spread to other Latin American countries too, including the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Venezuela and Puerto Rico. It also won over Japan, Taiwan and Australia, and many Latin Americans and Asians have played in the American Major Leagues. In fact, baseball's all-time home-run champion is Japanese. Sadaharu Oh hit 868 during his career in Japan.
Runs Win Matches
The objective in baseball is to score the most runs in nine innings, with teams taking turns to bat and field. Each team bats until three of its batters or runners are out. If the score is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played until one team wins. At the eight-team Olympic tournament, each team plays the other seven and the best four advance to the semi-finals. The semi-final winners meet to decide the gold and silver medals, while the two losing semi-finalists compete for bronze.
Baseball has been dropped from the programme for the 2012 Olympics in London, as has the similar sport of softball. While the baseball tournament is open only to men, the softball tournament is open only to women and follows the same format. Unlike baseball, softball has been dominated by the USA. The United States won gold when softball made its Olympic debut in 1996 and retained the title in 2000 and 2004.
A softball is as hard as a baseball but is bigger, being 12 inches in circumference compared to nine inches. One pitch at Atlanta was clocked at 118 kilometres per hour, which means softball batters have the same time to react as their baseball counterparts. Baseball pitchers throw at up to 160 kilometres per hour, but stand 60 feet from the batters, whereas softball pitchers stand only 43 feet away.
But it was not until Barcelona in 1992 that baseball made its debut as a full medal sport, and since then it has been dominated not by the USA, but by Cuba. The Cubans won three of the four baseball gold medals up for grabs between 1992 and 2004, with the USA's only success coming in Sydney in 2000.
Indeed, after being beaten 2-1 by Mexico in the quarter-finals of the American qualifying competition, the USA did not even make it to Athens for the 2004 Games. That was a real surprise, given that baseball's roots can be traced to the United States in the early 19th century.
Based on Rounders
Although it was clearly based on British sports like rounders and cricket that were popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, baseball's first formal professional organisation was the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, formed in the USA in 1871. It was replaced five years later by the National League of Professional Baseball Clubs.
But perhaps Cuba's Olympic success should not be too much of a surprise. After all, Cuba's first professional league was not far behind. It was formed in 1878, only two years after the National League in the USA, and in 1999, Cuba's national team crushed Major League side the Baltimore Orioles 12-6 in an exhibition game.
Baseball spread to other Latin American countries too, including the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Venezuela and Puerto Rico. It also won over Japan, Taiwan and Australia, and many Latin Americans and Asians have played in the American Major Leagues. In fact, baseball's all-time home-run champion is Japanese. Sadaharu Oh hit 868 during his career in Japan.
Runs Win Matches
The objective in baseball is to score the most runs in nine innings, with teams taking turns to bat and field. Each team bats until three of its batters or runners are out. If the score is tied after nine innings, extra innings are played until one team wins. At the eight-team Olympic tournament, each team plays the other seven and the best four advance to the semi-finals. The semi-final winners meet to decide the gold and silver medals, while the two losing semi-finalists compete for bronze.
Baseball has been dropped from the programme for the 2012 Olympics in London, as has the similar sport of softball. While the baseball tournament is open only to men, the softball tournament is open only to women and follows the same format. Unlike baseball, softball has been dominated by the USA. The United States won gold when softball made its Olympic debut in 1996 and retained the title in 2000 and 2004.
A softball is as hard as a baseball but is bigger, being 12 inches in circumference compared to nine inches. One pitch at Atlanta was clocked at 118 kilometres per hour, which means softball batters have the same time to react as their baseball counterparts. Baseball pitchers throw at up to 160 kilometres per hour, but stand 60 feet from the batters, whereas softball pitchers stand only 43 feet away.
Format of Olympic Volleyball and Handball
The phenomenon that is beach volleyball opened the sport up to a completely new market when it made its debut at the Olympic Games at Atlanta in 1996. The sand, sun and skimpy outfits made it an instant hit with spectators and television audiences alike and in many respects beach volleyball put the longer established, traditional game in the shade.
Playing outdoors presents players with fresh challenges. The sun and wind are variables and outstanding ball skills and court speed are required for a team of two to cover a court of sand. Matches are the best of three sets - the first two played to 21 points and the tie-breaker set to 15 - and a pair must win a set by two clear points. There are men's and women's beach volleyball tournaments at the Games, with 24 pairs in each. Partners have to be well matched or opponents can win easy points by targeting the weaker player.
Nude Volleyball
Beach volleyball first appeared in the early 1920s in Santa Monica, California, and by 1927 it was the chief recreational activity at a French nudist colony. It reached Czechoslovakia, Latvia and Bulgaria by the 1930s and the first official two-man tournament was held in 1947. In the 1950s, the first beach volleyball circuit was launched, involving hundreds of players and five California beaches.
Traditional volleyball has a longer history. It was invented in 1895 by William Morgan, a student at Springfield College and a director of the YMCA at Holyoke, Massachusetts. He called the game was mintonette, but it was quickly changed to volleyball. Japan was playing the game by 1896, followed closely by other Asian countries, and a specially designed ball was introduced in 1900.
Six-a-side play became standard in 1918, and in 1920 rules governing three hits per side and back-row attacks were established. At the same time, the set and spike originated in the Philippines. The Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) was formed in 1946 and volleyball made its Olympic debut in Tokyo in 1964.
Libero's Role
While power and height have become vital components of international teams, FIVB introduced a new specialist role - the libero - prior to the Sydney Games that gave a vital role to shorter players. This player cannot serve, spike the ball over the net or rotate into the front-line positions, but plays a vital role in serve reception and backcourt defence.
Matches are the best of five sets, with the first four sets played to 25 points and the tiebreaker fifth to 15. A team must win a set by two clear points. There are men's and women's tournaments at the Games, with 12 teams contesting each.
Handball has certain similarities to both football and basketball. It's a fast-paced team game, with seven players in a side, and, like football, the aim is to work together to score goals and prevent the opposition scoring. Games consist of two 30-minute halves with a 10-minute half-time break, and high-scoring games with more than 40 goals are common. Like basketball, players feint, body swerve, and jump in the air to pass, control the ball and shoot, but, unlike basketball, physical contact is allowed in handball.
Berlin Debut
Men's handball made its Olympic debut as an outdoor sport played on turf football fields at the 1936 Games in Berlin. It was not until the Games returned to Germany, in 1972 at Munich, that handball appeared in its present indoor format. Women's handball was introduced four years later in Montreal.
The International Amateur Handball Federation (IAHF) was formed in 1928 and 10 years later Germany hosted the first Field Handball World Championship. The International Handball Federation was founded in 1946 and by then seven-a-side indoor handball was just as popular as 11-a-side field handball. Between 1938 and 1966 separate world championships were held for both forms of handball.
Playing outdoors presents players with fresh challenges. The sun and wind are variables and outstanding ball skills and court speed are required for a team of two to cover a court of sand. Matches are the best of three sets - the first two played to 21 points and the tie-breaker set to 15 - and a pair must win a set by two clear points. There are men's and women's beach volleyball tournaments at the Games, with 24 pairs in each. Partners have to be well matched or opponents can win easy points by targeting the weaker player.
Nude Volleyball
Beach volleyball first appeared in the early 1920s in Santa Monica, California, and by 1927 it was the chief recreational activity at a French nudist colony. It reached Czechoslovakia, Latvia and Bulgaria by the 1930s and the first official two-man tournament was held in 1947. In the 1950s, the first beach volleyball circuit was launched, involving hundreds of players and five California beaches.
Traditional volleyball has a longer history. It was invented in 1895 by William Morgan, a student at Springfield College and a director of the YMCA at Holyoke, Massachusetts. He called the game was mintonette, but it was quickly changed to volleyball. Japan was playing the game by 1896, followed closely by other Asian countries, and a specially designed ball was introduced in 1900.
Six-a-side play became standard in 1918, and in 1920 rules governing three hits per side and back-row attacks were established. At the same time, the set and spike originated in the Philippines. The Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) was formed in 1946 and volleyball made its Olympic debut in Tokyo in 1964.
Libero's Role
While power and height have become vital components of international teams, FIVB introduced a new specialist role - the libero - prior to the Sydney Games that gave a vital role to shorter players. This player cannot serve, spike the ball over the net or rotate into the front-line positions, but plays a vital role in serve reception and backcourt defence.
Matches are the best of five sets, with the first four sets played to 25 points and the tiebreaker fifth to 15. A team must win a set by two clear points. There are men's and women's tournaments at the Games, with 12 teams contesting each.
Handball has certain similarities to both football and basketball. It's a fast-paced team game, with seven players in a side, and, like football, the aim is to work together to score goals and prevent the opposition scoring. Games consist of two 30-minute halves with a 10-minute half-time break, and high-scoring games with more than 40 goals are common. Like basketball, players feint, body swerve, and jump in the air to pass, control the ball and shoot, but, unlike basketball, physical contact is allowed in handball.
Berlin Debut
Men's handball made its Olympic debut as an outdoor sport played on turf football fields at the 1936 Games in Berlin. It was not until the Games returned to Germany, in 1972 at Munich, that handball appeared in its present indoor format. Women's handball was introduced four years later in Montreal.
The International Amateur Handball Federation (IAHF) was formed in 1928 and 10 years later Germany hosted the first Field Handball World Championship. The International Handball Federation was founded in 1946 and by then seven-a-side indoor handball was just as popular as 11-a-side field handball. Between 1938 and 1966 separate world championships were held for both forms of handball.
Former Olympic Sports
Baseball and softball will become the first Olympic sports to be dropped for 76 years when they are cut from the programme for the London 2012 Games. In recent times, the trend has been to add sports to the Olympic programme, but in the early part of the 20th century it was not uncommon for sports to be axed.
Polo made its last appearance at Berlin in 1936, having featured at the Games five times. Teams of mixed nationalities competed in the first Olympic polo tournament in 1900, Great Britain won gold in 1908 and 1920, and Argentina took the title in 1924 and 1936.
Rugby Union bowed out in 1924 and, although a return for the sport in the form of rugby sevens has been mooted, there are no definite plans for its reintroduction. Hosts France won gold in 1900, Australasia won in 1908 and the USA triumphed in the only other two tournaments, in 1920 and 1924.
First Winter Games
The introduction of the Winter Olympics in 1924 cut short the association of both ice hockey and figure skating with the summer programme. Figure skating had appeared in 1908 and 1920 and ice hockey in 1920 at Antwerp. Tug of war, won twice by Britain, also made the last of its five appearances in 1920.
Four sports - rackets, lacrosse, jeu de paume and water motorsports - were axed after the 1908 Games in London. Jeu de paume, or real tennis, is an ancestor of lawn tennis and made its one and only Olympic appearance in London, as did rackets - an indoor sport related to squash - and water motorsports, which involved racing powered boats around five laps of course eight nautical miles long. Canada won the only lacrosse tournaments held, in 1904 and 1908.
Roque, an American derivative of croquet, appeared at the 1904 Games in Saint Louis, but only Americans took part. Golf made its second and last appearance in 1904 too.
Croquet Clean Sweep
There were three sports - Basque pelota, cricket and croquet - made their only appearances at the 1900 Games in Paris. Nine of the 10 competitors - seven men and three women - in the croquet competition were French and, not surprisingly, the host nation took a clean sweep of medals.
Four nations were expected to contest the cricket tournament, but Belgium and Holland pulled out and left Britain and France to compete for gold in a two-day game. Britain batted first, scored 117 and bowled out France for 78. The Brits then scored 145 for five in their second innings to set the hosts a target of 185. The French fell well short, being bowled out for 26.
Like in cricket, there were only two nations represented in the Olympic Basque pelota tournament. A ball sport played on a two-walled court, Basque pelota has numerous variations and players can be barehanded or may use a bat, racket or special glove that extends into a long, curved basket. Spain defeated France to earn gold in 1900, and Basque pelota has been a demonstration sport in 1924, 1968 and 1992.
Polo made its last appearance at Berlin in 1936, having featured at the Games five times. Teams of mixed nationalities competed in the first Olympic polo tournament in 1900, Great Britain won gold in 1908 and 1920, and Argentina took the title in 1924 and 1936.
Rugby Union bowed out in 1924 and, although a return for the sport in the form of rugby sevens has been mooted, there are no definite plans for its reintroduction. Hosts France won gold in 1900, Australasia won in 1908 and the USA triumphed in the only other two tournaments, in 1920 and 1924.
First Winter Games
The introduction of the Winter Olympics in 1924 cut short the association of both ice hockey and figure skating with the summer programme. Figure skating had appeared in 1908 and 1920 and ice hockey in 1920 at Antwerp. Tug of war, won twice by Britain, also made the last of its five appearances in 1920.
Four sports - rackets, lacrosse, jeu de paume and water motorsports - were axed after the 1908 Games in London. Jeu de paume, or real tennis, is an ancestor of lawn tennis and made its one and only Olympic appearance in London, as did rackets - an indoor sport related to squash - and water motorsports, which involved racing powered boats around five laps of course eight nautical miles long. Canada won the only lacrosse tournaments held, in 1904 and 1908.
Roque, an American derivative of croquet, appeared at the 1904 Games in Saint Louis, but only Americans took part. Golf made its second and last appearance in 1904 too.
Croquet Clean Sweep
There were three sports - Basque pelota, cricket and croquet - made their only appearances at the 1900 Games in Paris. Nine of the 10 competitors - seven men and three women - in the croquet competition were French and, not surprisingly, the host nation took a clean sweep of medals.
Four nations were expected to contest the cricket tournament, but Belgium and Holland pulled out and left Britain and France to compete for gold in a two-day game. Britain batted first, scored 117 and bowled out France for 78. The Brits then scored 145 for five in their second innings to set the hosts a target of 185. The French fell well short, being bowled out for 26.
Like in cricket, there were only two nations represented in the Olympic Basque pelota tournament. A ball sport played on a two-walled court, Basque pelota has numerous variations and players can be barehanded or may use a bat, racket or special glove that extends into a long, curved basket. Spain defeated France to earn gold in 1900, and Basque pelota has been a demonstration sport in 1924, 1968 and 1992.
Guide to Olympic Tennis and Table Tennis
Table tennis is the world's largest participation sport, with an incredible 40 million competitive players and countless millions more playing recreationally. Leading players hit the ball at speeds up to 160 kilometres per hour using rubber-coated wooden and carbon-fibre rackets.
A variety of glues and rubber compounds can be applied to the rackets to impart greater spin or speed, and some glues are banned from the Olympic competition because they make the ball travel up to 30 kilometres per hour faster.
With shots named the kill, the hit and the chop, modern table tennis is a far cry from the genteel, after-dinner alternative to lawn tennis played in 1890s England with cigar-box lids for rackets and a carved champagne cork for a ball.
Seoul Debut
The sport made its Olympic debut at the Seoul Games in 1988 and there are four events: men's singles and doubles and women's singles and doubles. The top 16 seeds advance straight into the main singles draw, while another 48 players compete in a qualification round for the other 16 places. The main draw is a single-elimination tournament and matches are the best of five games. Semi-finals winners go on to play for gold and silver medals, with the semi-finals losers playing for bronze. Doubles follows a similar format, but 32 teams are involved.
There are various psychological ploys used in table tennis to gain the upper hand, despite a strict code of conduct that penalises unsporting behaviour. Staring out opponents or delaying the action by towelling off and tying shoelaces are all common tactics.
Dominant Chinese
The Chinese have been close to invincible in Olympic table tennis, winning an astounding 16 of the 20 gold medals awarded between 1988 and 2004. Tiny Deng Yaping made a big impact on the women's events at the 1992 Games in Barcelona, teaming up with Qiao Hong to win the doubles title and, two days later, defeating Qiao in the singles final. Deng and Qiao defended their doubles title in 1996, and Deng earned her fourth gold with victory over Chinese Taipei's Chen Jing, who had won gold in the singles in 1988 when representing China. In 2003, Deng was elected Chinese athlete of the century.
Liu Guoliang became a double Olympic champion in men's table tennis at the 1996 Atlanta Games, winning the doubles with Kong Linghui and the singles. He failed to defend either title four years later in Sydney, but did take bronze in the singles and teamed up with Kong once more to take silver in the doubles.
Tennis Dropped
Tennis was included in the first modern Olympics in 1896, but was dropped from the programme after 1924 amid turmoil over issues such as where to draw the line between amateurism and professionalism.
It did not return as a medal sport until 1988, but now all of the world's leading professional players are eligible. Andre Agassi has won the men's singles, while the impressive list of winners of the women's singles includes Steffi Graf, Jennifer Capriati, Lindsay Davenport, Venus Williams, Justin Henin-Hardenne.
There are four events - men's singles and doubles and women's singles and doubles - all decided by knockout competitions. Mixed doubles is not part of the current programme, although it has been included in the past. Semi-finals winners play to decide the gold and silver medals, with semi-finals losers playing for the bronze.
A variety of glues and rubber compounds can be applied to the rackets to impart greater spin or speed, and some glues are banned from the Olympic competition because they make the ball travel up to 30 kilometres per hour faster.
With shots named the kill, the hit and the chop, modern table tennis is a far cry from the genteel, after-dinner alternative to lawn tennis played in 1890s England with cigar-box lids for rackets and a carved champagne cork for a ball.
Seoul Debut
The sport made its Olympic debut at the Seoul Games in 1988 and there are four events: men's singles and doubles and women's singles and doubles. The top 16 seeds advance straight into the main singles draw, while another 48 players compete in a qualification round for the other 16 places. The main draw is a single-elimination tournament and matches are the best of five games. Semi-finals winners go on to play for gold and silver medals, with the semi-finals losers playing for bronze. Doubles follows a similar format, but 32 teams are involved.
There are various psychological ploys used in table tennis to gain the upper hand, despite a strict code of conduct that penalises unsporting behaviour. Staring out opponents or delaying the action by towelling off and tying shoelaces are all common tactics.
Dominant Chinese
The Chinese have been close to invincible in Olympic table tennis, winning an astounding 16 of the 20 gold medals awarded between 1988 and 2004. Tiny Deng Yaping made a big impact on the women's events at the 1992 Games in Barcelona, teaming up with Qiao Hong to win the doubles title and, two days later, defeating Qiao in the singles final. Deng and Qiao defended their doubles title in 1996, and Deng earned her fourth gold with victory over Chinese Taipei's Chen Jing, who had won gold in the singles in 1988 when representing China. In 2003, Deng was elected Chinese athlete of the century.
Liu Guoliang became a double Olympic champion in men's table tennis at the 1996 Atlanta Games, winning the doubles with Kong Linghui and the singles. He failed to defend either title four years later in Sydney, but did take bronze in the singles and teamed up with Kong once more to take silver in the doubles.
Tennis Dropped
Tennis was included in the first modern Olympics in 1896, but was dropped from the programme after 1924 amid turmoil over issues such as where to draw the line between amateurism and professionalism.
It did not return as a medal sport until 1988, but now all of the world's leading professional players are eligible. Andre Agassi has won the men's singles, while the impressive list of winners of the women's singles includes Steffi Graf, Jennifer Capriati, Lindsay Davenport, Venus Williams, Justin Henin-Hardenne.
There are four events - men's singles and doubles and women's singles and doubles - all decided by knockout competitions. Mixed doubles is not part of the current programme, although it has been included in the past. Semi-finals winners play to decide the gold and silver medals, with semi-finals losers playing for the bronze.
Olympic Equestrian Events
Equestrianism is the only Olympic sport to team up athletes with animals and one of the few in which men and women compete on equal terms. Horse and rider work together for years to hone the skills required for these tests of agility, speed and grace.
Chariot races and horse riding featured in the ancient Greek Games, and equestrian events made their debut in the modern Olympics at the 2nd Olympiad in 1900, when a high jump and long jump were held for the only time. In 1912 at Stockholm the competition began to resemble the one known today.
Vaulting made a single appearance in 1920, but otherwise the Olympic programme has rarely varied and includes three disciplines - dressage, show jumping and three-day eventing - with individual and team competitions in each.
In dressage, the horse is guided through a series of complex manoeuvres by slight movements of the rider's hands, legs, and weight. Medals are decided over three rounds. In the first two, the horse and rider must complete a set routine of dressage movements, including passages, pirouettes and piaffes in a walk, trot and canter. The third round is freestyle, and individually choreographed routines are performed to music.
Ballet for Horses
Dressage is like watching a horse perform ballet as it responds to its rider's subtle aids and signals. Judges evaluate how well the horse has executed the moves and score accordingly. The event has changed little since the Renaissance, when Neapolitan nobleman Federico Grisone founded a riding academy in Naples in 1532. The term dressage stems from the French word dresser, meaning to train, and European cavalrymen developed dressage for use on the battlefield and parade ground.
Show jumping is more exciting to watch and easier to follow. It originated in Ireland, where fox hunting is a popular pursuit. The first jumping competitions were organised by the Royal Dublin Society in the 19th century.
Olympic show jumping requires horse and rider to negotiate a course of about 15 obstacles, including triple bars, parallel rails, simulated stone walls and water jumps. Penalties are incurred if jumps are taken in the wrong order, if a horse knocks down a rail, refuses a jump, takes jumps in the wrong order or exceeds a time limit.
German Gold
Germany's Hans Günter Winkler was one of the finest Olympic show jumpers and is the only rider in any discipline to win medals at six different Games. His Olympic career began in 1956 at Stockholm, where he won individual and team gold on Halla. Four years later, Halla became the only horse to win three gold medals as Winkler added another team gold and, although Halla retired, Winkler went on to win team gold in 1964, bronze in 1968, gold in 1972 and silver in 1976. He is the only show jumper to win five gold medals and the only one to win seven medals in total.
Three-day eventing combines dressage and show jumping and adds a third element - a cross-country course that tests horse and rider against the clock. Initially, Olympic eventing was restricted to military officers, although show jumping and dressage competitions were open to civilians. Women were allowed to compete in equestrian events at the 1952 Games in Helsinki and men and women have competed against each other since.
Chariot races and horse riding featured in the ancient Greek Games, and equestrian events made their debut in the modern Olympics at the 2nd Olympiad in 1900, when a high jump and long jump were held for the only time. In 1912 at Stockholm the competition began to resemble the one known today.
Vaulting made a single appearance in 1920, but otherwise the Olympic programme has rarely varied and includes three disciplines - dressage, show jumping and three-day eventing - with individual and team competitions in each.
In dressage, the horse is guided through a series of complex manoeuvres by slight movements of the rider's hands, legs, and weight. Medals are decided over three rounds. In the first two, the horse and rider must complete a set routine of dressage movements, including passages, pirouettes and piaffes in a walk, trot and canter. The third round is freestyle, and individually choreographed routines are performed to music.
Ballet for Horses
Dressage is like watching a horse perform ballet as it responds to its rider's subtle aids and signals. Judges evaluate how well the horse has executed the moves and score accordingly. The event has changed little since the Renaissance, when Neapolitan nobleman Federico Grisone founded a riding academy in Naples in 1532. The term dressage stems from the French word dresser, meaning to train, and European cavalrymen developed dressage for use on the battlefield and parade ground.
Show jumping is more exciting to watch and easier to follow. It originated in Ireland, where fox hunting is a popular pursuit. The first jumping competitions were organised by the Royal Dublin Society in the 19th century.
Olympic show jumping requires horse and rider to negotiate a course of about 15 obstacles, including triple bars, parallel rails, simulated stone walls and water jumps. Penalties are incurred if jumps are taken in the wrong order, if a horse knocks down a rail, refuses a jump, takes jumps in the wrong order or exceeds a time limit.
German Gold
Germany's Hans Günter Winkler was one of the finest Olympic show jumpers and is the only rider in any discipline to win medals at six different Games. His Olympic career began in 1956 at Stockholm, where he won individual and team gold on Halla. Four years later, Halla became the only horse to win three gold medals as Winkler added another team gold and, although Halla retired, Winkler went on to win team gold in 1964, bronze in 1968, gold in 1972 and silver in 1976. He is the only show jumper to win five gold medals and the only one to win seven medals in total.
Three-day eventing combines dressage and show jumping and adds a third element - a cross-country course that tests horse and rider against the clock. Initially, Olympic eventing was restricted to military officers, although show jumping and dressage competitions were open to civilians. Women were allowed to compete in equestrian events at the 1952 Games in Helsinki and men and women have competed against each other since.
Olympic Track and Field Events
In many ways, track and field athletics epitomises the Olympic Games. It is the original Olympic sport, dating back to the first recorded ancient Games in 776BC, and it is the embodiment of the Olympic motto 'Citius, Altius, Fortius' - faster, higher, stronger.
Until the 13th Olympiad in 728BC, the Games consisted of one running event - the stade race over the length of the stadium (192.27m). In 724BC the double stadium race appeared, and then came a long race held over seven, 12 or 20 lengths of the stadium. In 708BC, the pentathlon first appeared. Its five trials were discus, stade race, javelin, long jump - performed with a weight in each hand - and wrestling.
Most of the failed attempts to revive the ancient Games in the late 1700s and throughout the 19th century focused on track and field events, and when the Games were reincarnated in 1896 it was with athletics at their heart.
Early Events Dropped
All the competitors were men at the first modern Olympics in Athens and, although women participated at Paris in 1900, women's athletics was not introduced until the 9th Olympiad at Amsterdam in 1928. Some of the track and field events contested at early Olympiads, such as the 60metres, 200m hurdles, cross country and standing high jump, were dropped and by Los Angeles in 1932 the men's programme was more or less standardised.
Women were restricted to only a few events initially, but now there are very few differences between the track and field events for men and women. The women's steeplechase was introduced in Beijing, although there is still no women's 50-kilometre walk and women's high hurdles is over 100m as opposed to 110m for men. Also, women compete in the heptathlon rather than the decathlon.
Going for Gold
There were 47 track and field titles won in Beijing: the 100m, 200m, 400m, 800m, 1500m, 5,000m, 10,000m, sprint hurdles, 400m hurdles, 3,000m steeplechase, 4x100m relay and 4x400m relay for men and women on the track; the long jump, triple jump, high jump, pole vault, shot, discus, javelin and hammer for men and women in the field; the decathlon (100m, long jump, shot, high jump, 400m, 110m hurdles, discus, pole vault, javelin and 1500m) for men and heptathlon (100m hurdles, high jump, shot, 200m, long jump, javelin, 800m) for women; and the marathon and 20km walk for men and women and 50km walk for men on the road.
In the ancient Games, the first stade race - a short, sprint race - was the most prestigious and the winner gave his name to the Olympiad. Koroibos was the first champion in 776BC and Leonidas of Rhodes was the greatest, winning four times between 164 and 152BC. Little has changed in many respects and the men's 100m - to find the fastest man in the world - is still one of the most prestigious events at the Games.
Track and field enjoys unwavering popularity, despite doping scandals, and creates more Olympic legends than any other sport. At the first modern Games, USA's men dominated and they have done since, although African nations now dominate the distance races. Soviet and East German women were all conquering until those two nations dissolved, and now the USA face a strong challenge from Caribbean nations.
Until the 13th Olympiad in 728BC, the Games consisted of one running event - the stade race over the length of the stadium (192.27m). In 724BC the double stadium race appeared, and then came a long race held over seven, 12 or 20 lengths of the stadium. In 708BC, the pentathlon first appeared. Its five trials were discus, stade race, javelin, long jump - performed with a weight in each hand - and wrestling.
Most of the failed attempts to revive the ancient Games in the late 1700s and throughout the 19th century focused on track and field events, and when the Games were reincarnated in 1896 it was with athletics at their heart.
Early Events Dropped
All the competitors were men at the first modern Olympics in Athens and, although women participated at Paris in 1900, women's athletics was not introduced until the 9th Olympiad at Amsterdam in 1928. Some of the track and field events contested at early Olympiads, such as the 60metres, 200m hurdles, cross country and standing high jump, were dropped and by Los Angeles in 1932 the men's programme was more or less standardised.
Women were restricted to only a few events initially, but now there are very few differences between the track and field events for men and women. The women's steeplechase was introduced in Beijing, although there is still no women's 50-kilometre walk and women's high hurdles is over 100m as opposed to 110m for men. Also, women compete in the heptathlon rather than the decathlon.
Going for Gold
There were 47 track and field titles won in Beijing: the 100m, 200m, 400m, 800m, 1500m, 5,000m, 10,000m, sprint hurdles, 400m hurdles, 3,000m steeplechase, 4x100m relay and 4x400m relay for men and women on the track; the long jump, triple jump, high jump, pole vault, shot, discus, javelin and hammer for men and women in the field; the decathlon (100m, long jump, shot, high jump, 400m, 110m hurdles, discus, pole vault, javelin and 1500m) for men and heptathlon (100m hurdles, high jump, shot, 200m, long jump, javelin, 800m) for women; and the marathon and 20km walk for men and women and 50km walk for men on the road.
In the ancient Games, the first stade race - a short, sprint race - was the most prestigious and the winner gave his name to the Olympiad. Koroibos was the first champion in 776BC and Leonidas of Rhodes was the greatest, winning four times between 164 and 152BC. Little has changed in many respects and the men's 100m - to find the fastest man in the world - is still one of the most prestigious events at the Games.
Track and field enjoys unwavering popularity, despite doping scandals, and creates more Olympic legends than any other sport. At the first modern Games, USA's men dominated and they have done since, although African nations now dominate the distance races. Soviet and East German women were all conquering until those two nations dissolved, and now the USA face a strong challenge from Caribbean nations.
Rowing and Canoeing Events at the Olympics
The recorded modern history of competitive rowing precedes that of most other Olympic sports. The first Oxford-Cambridge race took place in 1828 and in 1852 Yale and Harvard rowed against each other for the first time on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire. The first modern Olympiad in 1896 was the only one not to feature rowing. The sport was on the programme that year, but rough seas forced its cancellation.
Women's rowing was added at Montreal in 1976 and women now contest six of the 14 events. Both men and women compete in single, double and quadruple sculls, lightweight double scull, the eight and coxless pair. Men also race in coxless four and lightweight coxless four. For lightweight events, women must not weigh more than 59 kilograms with the average crew weight no more than 57kg, while men must not weigh more than 72.5kg with the average crew weight no more than 70kg.
Sculling and Sweep Rowing
Rowers have an oar in each hand in sculling, but only one oar in sweep rowing. Boats have one, two, four or eight rowers, and the eights have a cox to steer the boat and direct the crew. In all the other boats, one rower steers using a foot pedal to control a small rudder.
Boats race in heats and advance to either semi-finals or directly to a six-boat final depending on the number of contestants in each event. Losing boats get a second chance, with the top boats again qualifying.
Although rowing is an endurance sport, boats can be travelling at up to 10 metres per second at the end of the 2,000m race. Crews sprint the first 500m at as many as 47 strokes per minute, drop to around 40 strokes per minute for the middle 1000m and shift back up a gear for the last 500m.
Canoes and Kayaks
Canoe and kayak racing was a demonstration sport at the 1924 Games and a full medal sport in 1936. Women's kayak events were added in 1948, but until 1972 only flatwater racing was on the Olympic programme. These are pure tests of speed held on calm water with competitors assigned to lanes. The more spectacular slalom racing was first held at the Munich Games, but then disappeared from the Olympics until 1992.
The paddler's position, the one or two-blade paddle and the covered parts of the boat are all key in differentiating between canoes and kayaks. The original kayak, developed by Inuits in the northern Arctic regions, was made by stretching sea-lion skins over a frame of whalebone and driftwood. It was then waterproofed with whale fat. Kayakers sit in the cockpit of the boat and use a paddle with a blade on each end.
North American Indians developed the original canoe - a dug-out, open-topped bark canoe. Canoeists paddle either kneeling on one knee or seated and use a single-bladed paddle. Canoes (often called Canadian canoes) are more open, but deck covers a proportion of the boat bow and stern.
Flatwater Events
There are 12 flatwater events at the Olympic, nine for men and three for women. Men compete over both 500m and 1000m with one or two paddlers in canoe and kayak, and also over 1000m with four paddlers in Kayak. Women compete only in kayak over 500m, with one, two or four paddlers.
In slalom racing, whitewater paddlers must cope with waves, holes, eddies and currents to negotiate between 20 and 25 gates in turbulent rapids. The quickest over a 300m course wins, although there are penalties for missing or touching gates. There are four events, three for men and one for women. Men compete in single and double canoe and single kayak, while women compete only in kayak singles.
Women's rowing was added at Montreal in 1976 and women now contest six of the 14 events. Both men and women compete in single, double and quadruple sculls, lightweight double scull, the eight and coxless pair. Men also race in coxless four and lightweight coxless four. For lightweight events, women must not weigh more than 59 kilograms with the average crew weight no more than 57kg, while men must not weigh more than 72.5kg with the average crew weight no more than 70kg.
Sculling and Sweep Rowing
Rowers have an oar in each hand in sculling, but only one oar in sweep rowing. Boats have one, two, four or eight rowers, and the eights have a cox to steer the boat and direct the crew. In all the other boats, one rower steers using a foot pedal to control a small rudder.
Boats race in heats and advance to either semi-finals or directly to a six-boat final depending on the number of contestants in each event. Losing boats get a second chance, with the top boats again qualifying.
Although rowing is an endurance sport, boats can be travelling at up to 10 metres per second at the end of the 2,000m race. Crews sprint the first 500m at as many as 47 strokes per minute, drop to around 40 strokes per minute for the middle 1000m and shift back up a gear for the last 500m.
Canoes and Kayaks
Canoe and kayak racing was a demonstration sport at the 1924 Games and a full medal sport in 1936. Women's kayak events were added in 1948, but until 1972 only flatwater racing was on the Olympic programme. These are pure tests of speed held on calm water with competitors assigned to lanes. The more spectacular slalom racing was first held at the Munich Games, but then disappeared from the Olympics until 1992.
The paddler's position, the one or two-blade paddle and the covered parts of the boat are all key in differentiating between canoes and kayaks. The original kayak, developed by Inuits in the northern Arctic regions, was made by stretching sea-lion skins over a frame of whalebone and driftwood. It was then waterproofed with whale fat. Kayakers sit in the cockpit of the boat and use a paddle with a blade on each end.
North American Indians developed the original canoe - a dug-out, open-topped bark canoe. Canoeists paddle either kneeling on one knee or seated and use a single-bladed paddle. Canoes (often called Canadian canoes) are more open, but deck covers a proportion of the boat bow and stern.
Flatwater Events
There are 12 flatwater events at the Olympic, nine for men and three for women. Men compete over both 500m and 1000m with one or two paddlers in canoe and kayak, and also over 1000m with four paddlers in Kayak. Women compete only in kayak over 500m, with one, two or four paddlers.
In slalom racing, whitewater paddlers must cope with waves, holes, eddies and currents to negotiate between 20 and 25 gates in turbulent rapids. The quickest over a 300m course wins, although there are penalties for missing or touching gates. There are four events, three for men and one for women. Men compete in single and double canoe and single kayak, while women compete only in kayak singles.
Rules & Format of Olympic Hockey
India produced one of the longest winning streaks in the history of the Olympic Games by winning six consecutive hockey gold medals between 1928 and 1956. They won 30 matches in succession and, although Pakistan took the Olympic crown in 1960, India regained it four years later in Tokyo and won it for an eighth time at the Moscow Games in 1980. Balbir Singh was one of the many stars of the India teams, scoring five times in the 6-1 win over Holland in the 1952 final in Helsinki.
Men's hockey made its Olympic debut in 1908 and has featured at every Games since 1920, while women's hockey was introduced in 1980. Australian midfielder Rechelle Hawkes is the only female hockey player to earn three medals and the only one to win medals 12 years apart. All of her medals are gold - won at Seoul in 1988, Atlanta in 1996 and Sydney in 2000. In addition, Hawkes was given the honour of reciting the Athletes' Oath on behalf of all the athletes at the Opening Ceremony in Sydney.
Route to Gold
Both the men's and women's Olympic tournaments are now contested by 12 teams, which are split into pools of six for the preliminary rounds. The top two teams in each pool qualify for the semi-finals and the remaining teams play classification matches for fifth to 12th places. The semi-final winners play for the gold and silver medals, while the losers play for bronze.
Hockey is the oldest known ball and stick game, with evidence it was played in Persia in 2000BC. Canterbury and Gloucester cathedrals have stained-glass windows of men playing a game with hooked sticks in mediaeval Europe, and the sport became so popular by the Middle Ages that it was banned in England because it interfered with archery practice, the basis for national defence.
The game became more organised in the late 19th century and London's Blackheath Football and Hockey Club, which dates back to at least 1861, is considered to be the first hockey club.
Britain's Leading Role
Although the word hockey comes from the old French word hocquet, which means shepherd's crook and refers to the crooked stick used to hit a small ball, it was the British who developed hockey as a sport. The Amateur Hockey Association, the national governing body, was formed in London in 1886, and the National Hockey Union was located in the Bristol area between 1887 and 1895.
Hockey was then carried throughout the British Empire by the nation's armed forces and other workers, and so it is no coincidence that most of the dominant nations in the sport are, or were, members of the British Empire, including India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand and Great Britain. Other nations have made huge advances in recent times - Germany won the men's Olympic crown in 1992 and Holland landed back-to-back titles in 1996 and 2000 - and the game is now a truly worldwide sport. Until the 1970s, the game at international level was mainly played on natural grass, but it has become an even more exciting and skilful sport since the introduction of synthetic surfaces.
Men's hockey made its Olympic debut in 1908 and has featured at every Games since 1920, while women's hockey was introduced in 1980. Australian midfielder Rechelle Hawkes is the only female hockey player to earn three medals and the only one to win medals 12 years apart. All of her medals are gold - won at Seoul in 1988, Atlanta in 1996 and Sydney in 2000. In addition, Hawkes was given the honour of reciting the Athletes' Oath on behalf of all the athletes at the Opening Ceremony in Sydney.
Route to Gold
Both the men's and women's Olympic tournaments are now contested by 12 teams, which are split into pools of six for the preliminary rounds. The top two teams in each pool qualify for the semi-finals and the remaining teams play classification matches for fifth to 12th places. The semi-final winners play for the gold and silver medals, while the losers play for bronze.
Hockey is the oldest known ball and stick game, with evidence it was played in Persia in 2000BC. Canterbury and Gloucester cathedrals have stained-glass windows of men playing a game with hooked sticks in mediaeval Europe, and the sport became so popular by the Middle Ages that it was banned in England because it interfered with archery practice, the basis for national defence.
The game became more organised in the late 19th century and London's Blackheath Football and Hockey Club, which dates back to at least 1861, is considered to be the first hockey club.
Britain's Leading Role
Although the word hockey comes from the old French word hocquet, which means shepherd's crook and refers to the crooked stick used to hit a small ball, it was the British who developed hockey as a sport. The Amateur Hockey Association, the national governing body, was formed in London in 1886, and the National Hockey Union was located in the Bristol area between 1887 and 1895.
Hockey was then carried throughout the British Empire by the nation's armed forces and other workers, and so it is no coincidence that most of the dominant nations in the sport are, or were, members of the British Empire, including India, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand and Great Britain. Other nations have made huge advances in recent times - Germany won the men's Olympic crown in 1992 and Holland landed back-to-back titles in 1996 and 2000 - and the game is now a truly worldwide sport. Until the 1970s, the game at international level was mainly played on natural grass, but it has become an even more exciting and skilful sport since the introduction of synthetic surfaces.
Rules & Weight Divisions in Olympic Wrestling
Wrestling is widely recognised as the oldest competitive sport in the world. Cave drawings have been found from the Sumero-Akkadian civilisation depicting wrestlers from 3000BC and similar wall paintings from ancient Egyptian civilisations date from 2400BC. Much later, the Greeks introduced wrestling to the ancient Olympics in 708BC.
Greco-Roman wrestling, deemed a pure reincarnation of ancient Greek and Roman wrestling, was a key part of the first modern Olympics in Athens in 1896. In this form, wrestlers can use only their arms and upper bodies to attack and can hold only those same parts of their opponents.
A second style of wrestling, known commonly as 'catch as catch can', had by then become a popular professional entertainment in Britain and the USA, and in 1904 was introduced to the Olympics under the guise of freestyle wrestling. These wrestlers can use their legs for tripping, lifting and pushing and can hold opponents above or below the waist.
Weight Divisions
There are 18 events in Olympic wrestling. Men contest Greco-Roman and freestyle wrestling in seven bodyweight categories: under 55 kilograms, 55-60kg, 60-66kg, 66-74kg, 74-84kg, 84-96kg and 96-120kg. Women's freestyle wrestling was introduced in 2004 and there are four bodyweight categories: under 48kg, 48-55kg, 55-63kg and 63-72kg.
Hundreds of styles of wrestling exist worldwide. Many nations have indigenous forms, among them Cumberland wrestling in Britain, Glíma wrestling in Iceland and Schwingen wrestling in Switzerland. Four main forms of amateur competitive wrestling are practised internationally: Greco-Roman, freestyle, judo and sombo. Judo is a separate sport at the Olympics, while sombo, a combination of freestyle and judo, is most popular in the republics of the former Soviet Union and has not featured at the Games.
Russia is one of the strongest nations in both Greco-Roman and freestyle wrestling and finished top of the medal table in Athens, winning five men's gold medals - three more than nearest rival Uzbekistan.
Amazing Aleksandr
Siberian-born Aleksandr Karelin was one of Russia's leading performers between 1988 and 2000. A super heavyweight Greco-Roman wrestler, Karelin made his Olympic debut in Seoul and comfortably defeated his first four opponents. He trailed Bulgarian Rangel Gerovski 3-0 in the final with only 30 seconds left, but used a reverse body lift to score a five-point takedown and won gold.
Karelin was undefeated between then and the Barcelona Olympics, and eased his way to a second gold medal, with only one of his opponents lasting until the time limit. In Atlanta, Karelin became the first wrestler to win the same weight division three times and outscored his five opponents 25-0 in the process. The one blemish on his Olympic career came in the final of the Sydney Games in 2000, when a rare lapse of concentration cost him his 13-year unbeaten record. Karelin lost 1-0 to the USA's Rulon Gardner and had to settle for silver.
In 2001, Karelin, who also won nine world championships, received the Olympic Order, the highest award of the Olympic Movement, from the then president of the International Olympic Committee Juan Antonio Samaranch.
Greco-Roman wrestling, deemed a pure reincarnation of ancient Greek and Roman wrestling, was a key part of the first modern Olympics in Athens in 1896. In this form, wrestlers can use only their arms and upper bodies to attack and can hold only those same parts of their opponents.
A second style of wrestling, known commonly as 'catch as catch can', had by then become a popular professional entertainment in Britain and the USA, and in 1904 was introduced to the Olympics under the guise of freestyle wrestling. These wrestlers can use their legs for tripping, lifting and pushing and can hold opponents above or below the waist.
Weight Divisions
There are 18 events in Olympic wrestling. Men contest Greco-Roman and freestyle wrestling in seven bodyweight categories: under 55 kilograms, 55-60kg, 60-66kg, 66-74kg, 74-84kg, 84-96kg and 96-120kg. Women's freestyle wrestling was introduced in 2004 and there are four bodyweight categories: under 48kg, 48-55kg, 55-63kg and 63-72kg.
Hundreds of styles of wrestling exist worldwide. Many nations have indigenous forms, among them Cumberland wrestling in Britain, Glíma wrestling in Iceland and Schwingen wrestling in Switzerland. Four main forms of amateur competitive wrestling are practised internationally: Greco-Roman, freestyle, judo and sombo. Judo is a separate sport at the Olympics, while sombo, a combination of freestyle and judo, is most popular in the republics of the former Soviet Union and has not featured at the Games.
Russia is one of the strongest nations in both Greco-Roman and freestyle wrestling and finished top of the medal table in Athens, winning five men's gold medals - three more than nearest rival Uzbekistan.
Amazing Aleksandr
Siberian-born Aleksandr Karelin was one of Russia's leading performers between 1988 and 2000. A super heavyweight Greco-Roman wrestler, Karelin made his Olympic debut in Seoul and comfortably defeated his first four opponents. He trailed Bulgarian Rangel Gerovski 3-0 in the final with only 30 seconds left, but used a reverse body lift to score a five-point takedown and won gold.
Karelin was undefeated between then and the Barcelona Olympics, and eased his way to a second gold medal, with only one of his opponents lasting until the time limit. In Atlanta, Karelin became the first wrestler to win the same weight division three times and outscored his five opponents 25-0 in the process. The one blemish on his Olympic career came in the final of the Sydney Games in 2000, when a rare lapse of concentration cost him his 13-year unbeaten record. Karelin lost 1-0 to the USA's Rulon Gardner and had to settle for silver.
In 2001, Karelin, who also won nine world championships, received the Olympic Order, the highest award of the Olympic Movement, from the then president of the International Olympic Committee Juan Antonio Samaranch.
Rules and Format of Olympic Basketball
Few Olympic sports have been dominated by one nation in the way that basketball has been dominated by the USA. The Americans have won the men's tournament 12 times since it was introduced to the Games as a medal sport in 1936.
The Soviet Union scored a controversial 51-50 victory over the USA in the Munich final of 1972. USA celebrations began when the horn sounded to end the game with them 50-49 in front, but USSR coach Vladimir Kondrashkin convinced match officials he had called a time-out and no-one had heard him. Three seconds were added to the clock and, in the confusion, Aleksandr Belov rose unopposed to score the winning points.
Yugoslavia took gold in 1980 when the USA boycotted the Moscow Games, and the Soviets defeated the USA 82-76 in the semi-finals on route to the title in 1988.
The Dream Team
Professionals were admitted in Barcelona in 1992 and a USA 'Dream Team' packed with National Basketball Association (NBA) stars like Earvin 'Magic' Johnson, Michael Jordan and Larry Bird gave a dazzling display on their way to gold. It was arguably the greatest basketball team ever assembled.
Even the American professionals are not unbeatable, however, as Argentina proved at the 2004 Games in Athens, knocking out the USA 89-81 in the semi-finals on the way to the title.
Women's basketball was added to the Olympic programme in 1976, and the USA's women have been just as dominant as the men. The Soviets won in Montreal and again four years later in Moscow, when the Americans boycotted, but the USA triumphed in five of the next six Games with only the Commonwealth of Independent States interrupting the successful run in 1992.
A Popular Sport
Basketball, one of the most popular sports in the world, is played in four periods of 10 minutes each at the Olympics, with five-minute overtimes if a game is tied. There are 12 teams in both the men's and women's basketball tournaments and, with the exception of the hosts and the reigning world champions, all have to qualify through a continental championship a year prior to the Games.
A three-point line, or arc, around the hoop allows three points for baskets scored from beyond 6.25metres and two points from inside that distance.
Funnily enough, despite the USA's dominance in the sport, basketball was the brainchild of a Canadian. James W. Naismith invented it in December 1891 while employed as an instructor at the International YMCA Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts - now Springfield College. Basketball was originally played with peach baskets, with an attendant on a ladder to retrieve the ball after a made basket. Naismith formed 13 rules, most of which still form the basics of the modern game.
Basketball was international by the 1930s and in 1932 the International Basketball Federation was founded in Geneva, Switzerland. It was on the Olympic programme in 1904, but was contested by American club teams and served as the Amateur Athletic Union of the USA Championship for that year, so was considered only an exhibition sport.
The Soviet Union scored a controversial 51-50 victory over the USA in the Munich final of 1972. USA celebrations began when the horn sounded to end the game with them 50-49 in front, but USSR coach Vladimir Kondrashkin convinced match officials he had called a time-out and no-one had heard him. Three seconds were added to the clock and, in the confusion, Aleksandr Belov rose unopposed to score the winning points.
Yugoslavia took gold in 1980 when the USA boycotted the Moscow Games, and the Soviets defeated the USA 82-76 in the semi-finals on route to the title in 1988.
The Dream Team
Professionals were admitted in Barcelona in 1992 and a USA 'Dream Team' packed with National Basketball Association (NBA) stars like Earvin 'Magic' Johnson, Michael Jordan and Larry Bird gave a dazzling display on their way to gold. It was arguably the greatest basketball team ever assembled.
Even the American professionals are not unbeatable, however, as Argentina proved at the 2004 Games in Athens, knocking out the USA 89-81 in the semi-finals on the way to the title.
Women's basketball was added to the Olympic programme in 1976, and the USA's women have been just as dominant as the men. The Soviets won in Montreal and again four years later in Moscow, when the Americans boycotted, but the USA triumphed in five of the next six Games with only the Commonwealth of Independent States interrupting the successful run in 1992.
A Popular Sport
Basketball, one of the most popular sports in the world, is played in four periods of 10 minutes each at the Olympics, with five-minute overtimes if a game is tied. There are 12 teams in both the men's and women's basketball tournaments and, with the exception of the hosts and the reigning world champions, all have to qualify through a continental championship a year prior to the Games.
A three-point line, or arc, around the hoop allows three points for baskets scored from beyond 6.25metres and two points from inside that distance.
Funnily enough, despite the USA's dominance in the sport, basketball was the brainchild of a Canadian. James W. Naismith invented it in December 1891 while employed as an instructor at the International YMCA Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts - now Springfield College. Basketball was originally played with peach baskets, with an attendant on a ladder to retrieve the ball after a made basket. Naismith formed 13 rules, most of which still form the basics of the modern game.
Basketball was international by the 1930s and in 1932 the International Basketball Federation was founded in Geneva, Switzerland. It was on the Olympic programme in 1904, but was contested by American club teams and served as the Amateur Athletic Union of the USA Championship for that year, so was considered only an exhibition sport.
Rules and Format of Olympic Football
Football was the first team sport included in the Olympic Games when introduced for the 2nd Olympiad at Paris in 1900. With the exception of 1932 in Los Angeles, it has been part of every Games since.
The sport as it is known today began with the formation of the English Football Association in 1863, but the game’s roots can be traced to the ancient Chinese, Greeks and Romans, who all played a similar game long before English kings tried to outlaw the violent sport in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Great Britain dominated in the early tournaments – winning three of the first four – and European nations were denied victory only three times until 1992, when Spain became the last European team to win gold.
Eastern Europeans Dominate
The strict amateur status of the early modern Olympics began to favour Eastern European countries in the 1950s. While the majority of top players throughout the world turned to the professional game, state-sponsored Eastern European players retained their amateur status. It resulted in Eastern European nations taking gold in all eight tournaments between 1952 and 1980. Hungary, winners three times, were the most successful.
At the 1984 Games in Los Angeles, professional players were admitted for the first time. Teams from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Central America, North America and Oceania were allowed to field their strongest professional sides, while European and South American nations were restricted to using players who had not played in a FIFA World Cup.
Since 1992, rules have restricted the men’s tournament - set at 16 teams - to players under 23 years old with the exception of three over-age players. Nigeria became the first African winners in 1996 and Cameroon took gold four years later in Sydney.
No Match for World Cup
Although football at the Olympics predates World Cup football by 30 years, it is a far inferior tournament. Olympic rules, initially governing amateur status and later age restrictions, have prevented the very best players in the world taking part in the Games. As a result, the Olympic football tournament has been outshone since FIFA’s showcase was introduced in 1930.
Football’s strongest nations have, on the whole, performed poorly at the Games. Brazil, World Cup winners a record five times and runners-up twice, have never won Olympic gold and Italy, winners of four World Cup tournaments, have taken the Olympic crown only once, in 1936.
Despite early successes, Great Britain no longer takes part in qualifying tournaments for Olympic football. The four UK nations – England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales – have separate international identities within FIFA and are not willing to risk that status by coming together to compete as Great Britain at the Games.Women’s football was added in 1996 at Atlanta and the USA have been dominant, winning gold in 1996 and 2004 and losing to Norway in the 2000 final. In 2004, the number of women’s teams increased from eight to 10, and in Beijing 12 women’s teams took part. No age restrictions apply for the women’s tournament.
The sport as it is known today began with the formation of the English Football Association in 1863, but the game’s roots can be traced to the ancient Chinese, Greeks and Romans, who all played a similar game long before English kings tried to outlaw the violent sport in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Great Britain dominated in the early tournaments – winning three of the first four – and European nations were denied victory only three times until 1992, when Spain became the last European team to win gold.
Eastern Europeans Dominate
The strict amateur status of the early modern Olympics began to favour Eastern European countries in the 1950s. While the majority of top players throughout the world turned to the professional game, state-sponsored Eastern European players retained their amateur status. It resulted in Eastern European nations taking gold in all eight tournaments between 1952 and 1980. Hungary, winners three times, were the most successful.
At the 1984 Games in Los Angeles, professional players were admitted for the first time. Teams from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Central America, North America and Oceania were allowed to field their strongest professional sides, while European and South American nations were restricted to using players who had not played in a FIFA World Cup.
Since 1992, rules have restricted the men’s tournament - set at 16 teams - to players under 23 years old with the exception of three over-age players. Nigeria became the first African winners in 1996 and Cameroon took gold four years later in Sydney.
No Match for World Cup
Although football at the Olympics predates World Cup football by 30 years, it is a far inferior tournament. Olympic rules, initially governing amateur status and later age restrictions, have prevented the very best players in the world taking part in the Games. As a result, the Olympic football tournament has been outshone since FIFA’s showcase was introduced in 1930.
Football’s strongest nations have, on the whole, performed poorly at the Games. Brazil, World Cup winners a record five times and runners-up twice, have never won Olympic gold and Italy, winners of four World Cup tournaments, have taken the Olympic crown only once, in 1936.
Despite early successes, Great Britain no longer takes part in qualifying tournaments for Olympic football. The four UK nations – England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales – have separate international identities within FIFA and are not willing to risk that status by coming together to compete as Great Britain at the Games.Women’s football was added in 1996 at Atlanta and the USA have been dominant, winning gold in 1996 and 2004 and losing to Norway in the 2000 final. In 2004, the number of women’s teams increased from eight to 10, and in Beijing 12 women’s teams took part. No age restrictions apply for the women’s tournament.
Rules and Skills in Olympic Shooting and Archery
The bullseye in Olympic archery measures only 12.2 centimetres in diameter and archers have to hit it from 70 metres away. The accuracy required is staggering and only those with rock-steady hands and nerves of steel stand a chance.
South Korean Soo-Nyung Kim proved she had those qualities in abundance at her home Games in Seoul. She struck gold in both the individual and team events at the age of 17, defended her individual title in Barcelona four years later and came out of retirement to add a fourth gold medal in the team event in Sydney.
There are four events in Olympic archery: men's and women's individual and team competitions. The target measures 122cm in diameter and is marked with 10 concentric rings, with the centre ring worth 10 points. The outer ring counts one and rings in between increase by one point in value as they near the centre.
Aim for Gold
In individual events, archers are ranked from one to 64 and compete in head-to-head knockout matches. Semi-finals winners compete for gold and silver, while losing semi-finalists shoot for bronze. Each archer shoots six ends of three arrows - with a time limit of 40 seconds per arrow - until the quarter-finals, when archers shoot four ends of three arrows. Teams consist of three archers.
Archery featured at the 1900, 1904, 1908 and 1920 Games but then disappeared from the Olympic programme until 1972. Standard equipment is now a recurve bow coated in fibreglass and arrows made of aluminium and carbon graphite that can travel at more than 240 kilometres per hour.
Historians believe archery dates back to the Stone Age - around 20,000BC - but the earliest people known to have used the bow and arrow were the ancient Egyptians 5,000 years ago. The first known organised archery competition was at Finsbury, England in 1583.
Shooting Stars
Shooting events at the Olympics fall into three general categories, with competitors using rifles, pistols or shotguns. There are 17 events in all: men's 10m air pistol (60 shots), 10m air rifle (60 shots), 25m rapid fire pistol (60 shots), 50m pistol (60 shots), 50m rifle three positions (3x40 shots), 50m rifle prone (60 shots), double trap (150 targets), skeet (125 targets), trap (125 targets), and women's 10m air pistol (40 shots), 10m air rifle (40 shots), 25m pistol (30+30 shots), 50m rifle three positions (3x20 shots), skeet (75 targets) and trap (75 targets).
In pistol events, competitors stand, hold and fire the gun with one hand and must ensure the wrist is free of support. Points are earned by shooting at a 10-ring target. In clay target events - trap, skeet and double trap - competitors typically use 12-bore shotguns that fire cartridges containing small pellets. The clay, or target, has a diameter of four inches and is fired from mechanical traps at differing heights and speeds.
On Target
Small bore rifles are single loaded, with 5.6 millimetre calibre (diameter of the firearm's bore, or barrel), while air rifles shoot pellets propelled by air and are 4.5mm calibre. Competitors shoot from prone, standing and kneeling positions, depending on the event, and earn points shooting at a 10-ring target.
When the National Rifle Association was formed in 1871, it sparked the development of shooting as an organised sport in the USA. Shooting has been contested at most Olympic Games, although it was absent in 1904 and 1928. Women were allowed to compete for the first time in 1968, and separate events for women were introduced in 1984.
South Korean Soo-Nyung Kim proved she had those qualities in abundance at her home Games in Seoul. She struck gold in both the individual and team events at the age of 17, defended her individual title in Barcelona four years later and came out of retirement to add a fourth gold medal in the team event in Sydney.
There are four events in Olympic archery: men's and women's individual and team competitions. The target measures 122cm in diameter and is marked with 10 concentric rings, with the centre ring worth 10 points. The outer ring counts one and rings in between increase by one point in value as they near the centre.
Aim for Gold
In individual events, archers are ranked from one to 64 and compete in head-to-head knockout matches. Semi-finals winners compete for gold and silver, while losing semi-finalists shoot for bronze. Each archer shoots six ends of three arrows - with a time limit of 40 seconds per arrow - until the quarter-finals, when archers shoot four ends of three arrows. Teams consist of three archers.
Archery featured at the 1900, 1904, 1908 and 1920 Games but then disappeared from the Olympic programme until 1972. Standard equipment is now a recurve bow coated in fibreglass and arrows made of aluminium and carbon graphite that can travel at more than 240 kilometres per hour.
Historians believe archery dates back to the Stone Age - around 20,000BC - but the earliest people known to have used the bow and arrow were the ancient Egyptians 5,000 years ago. The first known organised archery competition was at Finsbury, England in 1583.
Shooting Stars
Shooting events at the Olympics fall into three general categories, with competitors using rifles, pistols or shotguns. There are 17 events in all: men's 10m air pistol (60 shots), 10m air rifle (60 shots), 25m rapid fire pistol (60 shots), 50m pistol (60 shots), 50m rifle three positions (3x40 shots), 50m rifle prone (60 shots), double trap (150 targets), skeet (125 targets), trap (125 targets), and women's 10m air pistol (40 shots), 10m air rifle (40 shots), 25m pistol (30+30 shots), 50m rifle three positions (3x20 shots), skeet (75 targets) and trap (75 targets).
In pistol events, competitors stand, hold and fire the gun with one hand and must ensure the wrist is free of support. Points are earned by shooting at a 10-ring target. In clay target events - trap, skeet and double trap - competitors typically use 12-bore shotguns that fire cartridges containing small pellets. The clay, or target, has a diameter of four inches and is fired from mechanical traps at differing heights and speeds.
On Target
Small bore rifles are single loaded, with 5.6 millimetre calibre (diameter of the firearm's bore, or barrel), while air rifles shoot pellets propelled by air and are 4.5mm calibre. Competitors shoot from prone, standing and kneeling positions, depending on the event, and earn points shooting at a 10-ring target.
When the National Rifle Association was formed in 1871, it sparked the development of shooting as an organised sport in the USA. Shooting has been contested at most Olympic Games, although it was absent in 1904 and 1928. Women were allowed to compete for the first time in 1968, and separate events for women were introduced in 1984.
Rules and Weight Divisions in Olympic Boxing
The noble art of boxing is one of the most illustrious sports at the Olympics and has produced a string of legends, although it is perhaps surprising that a sport introduced to the ancient Games in the late 7th century BC has not been an ever-present at the modern Olympics.
There is evidence that boxing took place in Egypt around 3000BC. When the Greeks incorporated it in the ancient Games, boxers bound their hands and forearms in soft leather for protection and the fight continued until one man went down or conceded. The Romans added a gladiatorial dimension, replacing the leather binding with the cestus, a battle glove studded with spikes or weighted with lead, and fights usually ended in death.
Much later, in 17th century England, reference to matches can be found and organised amateur bouts began in 1880. Originally only three weight classes were contested and boxing was omitted from the first modern Olympiad in 1896 because it was considered too dangerous. It was introduced at the 1904 Games in Saint Louis and the USA won all seven weight divisions - not surprising as the Americans were the only nation to enter.
Swedes Ban Boxing
Sweden's national law prohibited boxing, so it was not on the programme for the Stockholm Games in 1912, but it returned in 1920 and has been part of every Olympics since.
There are now 11 weight divisions contested at the Games - light flyweight (under 48 kilograms), flyweight (51kg), bantamweight (54kg), featherweight (57kg), lightweight (60kg), light welterweight (64kg), welterweight (69kg), middleweight (75kg), light heavyweight (81kg), heavyweight (91kg) and super heavyweight (over 91kg).
Boxers fight in an elimination tournament at the Games and are paired off at random, with no regard given to ranking. Unlike most Olympic events, bronze medals are awarded to both losing semi-finalists.
Qualifying for the Games
Regional qualifying tournaments are held in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania to allow boxers to qualify for the Games. The strength of boxing in the region dictates the number of boxers accepted from any region and this varies according to weight division.
Boxing has more than its fair share of Olympic legends, including Hungarian Lászlo Papp, who won the middleweight title in 1948 and added light middleweight golds in 1952 and 1956. American Cassius Clay, later Muhammad Ali, was the light heavyweight champion in 1960. Following in his footsteps were countrymen George Foreman, the 1968 heavyweight champion, 'Sugar' Ray Leonard, the 1976 light welterweight champion, and Oscar De La Hoya, the 1992 lightweight champion.
Teófilo Stevenson won his third successive super-heavyweight gold in 1980, a record matched by fellow Cuban Félix Savón, who won his third consecutive heavyweight gold in 2000.
Third Place Shared
Since the 1952 Games in Helsinki, both semi-final losers have been ranked as placing third. In 1952 the third place finishers were awarded diplomas, but since 1956 bronze medals have been presented.
At the 1984 Games in Los Angeles, head guards became compulsory wear, while in 1992 an electronic scoring machine to make judges' officiating more objective was introduced. Only blows registered within one second by at least three of five judges are now taken into account.
There is evidence that boxing took place in Egypt around 3000BC. When the Greeks incorporated it in the ancient Games, boxers bound their hands and forearms in soft leather for protection and the fight continued until one man went down or conceded. The Romans added a gladiatorial dimension, replacing the leather binding with the cestus, a battle glove studded with spikes or weighted with lead, and fights usually ended in death.
Much later, in 17th century England, reference to matches can be found and organised amateur bouts began in 1880. Originally only three weight classes were contested and boxing was omitted from the first modern Olympiad in 1896 because it was considered too dangerous. It was introduced at the 1904 Games in Saint Louis and the USA won all seven weight divisions - not surprising as the Americans were the only nation to enter.
Swedes Ban Boxing
Sweden's national law prohibited boxing, so it was not on the programme for the Stockholm Games in 1912, but it returned in 1920 and has been part of every Olympics since.
There are now 11 weight divisions contested at the Games - light flyweight (under 48 kilograms), flyweight (51kg), bantamweight (54kg), featherweight (57kg), lightweight (60kg), light welterweight (64kg), welterweight (69kg), middleweight (75kg), light heavyweight (81kg), heavyweight (91kg) and super heavyweight (over 91kg).
Boxers fight in an elimination tournament at the Games and are paired off at random, with no regard given to ranking. Unlike most Olympic events, bronze medals are awarded to both losing semi-finalists.
Qualifying for the Games
Regional qualifying tournaments are held in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania to allow boxers to qualify for the Games. The strength of boxing in the region dictates the number of boxers accepted from any region and this varies according to weight division.
Boxing has more than its fair share of Olympic legends, including Hungarian Lászlo Papp, who won the middleweight title in 1948 and added light middleweight golds in 1952 and 1956. American Cassius Clay, later Muhammad Ali, was the light heavyweight champion in 1960. Following in his footsteps were countrymen George Foreman, the 1968 heavyweight champion, 'Sugar' Ray Leonard, the 1976 light welterweight champion, and Oscar De La Hoya, the 1992 lightweight champion.
Teófilo Stevenson won his third successive super-heavyweight gold in 1980, a record matched by fellow Cuban Félix Savón, who won his third consecutive heavyweight gold in 2000.
Third Place Shared
Since the 1952 Games in Helsinki, both semi-final losers have been ranked as placing third. In 1952 the third place finishers were awarded diplomas, but since 1956 bronze medals have been presented.
At the 1984 Games in Los Angeles, head guards became compulsory wear, while in 1992 an electronic scoring machine to make judges' officiating more objective was introduced. Only blows registered within one second by at least three of five judges are now taken into account.
Rules and Weight Divisions: Olympic Judo and Taekwondo
Judo, a traditional Japanese wrestling sport, means 'the gentle way', yet it is the only Olympic sport that allows choking an opponent in a submission hold or breaking an arm. It is derived in part from jujitsu - meaning 'gentle technique' - the hand-to-hand combat technique of ancient samurai warriors.
Judo made its Olympic debut at the 1964 Games in Tokyo and the host nation went on to win three of the four weight classes contested. It was excluded in 1968 but returned in 1972, and women's judo was added in 1992.
There are now 14 Olympic judo events, with both men and women contesting seven bodyweight classes: men's under 60 kilograms, 60-66kg, 66-73kg, 73-81kg, 81-90kg, 90-100kg and over 100kg, and women's under 48kg, 48-52kg, 52-57kg, 57-63kg, 63-70kg, 70-78kg and over 78kg.
Judo's Four Medals
Men's contests last five minutes, women's four, and throwing opponents to the floor wins most matches. Judoka are divided into two pools by a draw and compete in a knockout tournament to decide gold and silver medal winners. Two bronze medals are awarded, with all the judoka who lost to the eventual semi-finalists given a second chance. The two best lucky losers challenge the beaten semi-finalists and the winners of those matches receive bronze medals.
The word judo first appears in the 1st century chronicles of Chinese emperor Kuang Wu. Ju means 'gentleness' or 'pliancy', and applies to the emphasis judo places on yielding to an opponent's strength to overcome them, rather than attempting to defeat them by force. Do means 'the way'.
Son of Jujitsu
The sport is derived from the older jujitsu. Judo schools began to develop techniques differing from jujitsu in the 19th century, and Dr Jigoro Kano combined these techniques and clarified the rules. Kano, a long-time member of the International Olympic Committee, stressed judo's philosophical principles and removed many of the dangerous parts of jujitsu. He developed Kodokan judo and opened his first school, or dojo, in 1882.
Judo spread slowly to other countries and the first international match, between the Japanese Budokwai School and a German national team, did not take place until 1926.
Taekwondo, which means 'the way of kicking and striking', is a Korean martial art. Both hands and feet are used to overcome an opponent, but the sport's trademark is its combination of kick movements.
Sydney Debut
It was a demonstration sport at the 1988 and 1992 Olympics, and became a full medal sport at the 2000 Games in Sydney. There are eight Olympic taekwondo events, with both men and women contesting four bodyweight classes: men's under 58kg, 58-68kg, 68-80 kg and over 80kg, and women's under 49kg, 49-57kg, 57-67kg and over 67kg.
A knockout tournament decides the gold and silver medals, and all competitors defeated by the two finalists compete for the bronze. To score contests, a point is awarded for each legitimate blow and a point is deducted for each penalty.
Korea has a variety of martial arts, but in 1955 a group of Korean martial arts leaders chose taekwondo as the definitive one in an attempt to promote the sport internationally. The Korean government recognised the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) as the legitimate governing body of the sport in 1973 and the first world championships were held in that year.
Judo made its Olympic debut at the 1964 Games in Tokyo and the host nation went on to win three of the four weight classes contested. It was excluded in 1968 but returned in 1972, and women's judo was added in 1992.
There are now 14 Olympic judo events, with both men and women contesting seven bodyweight classes: men's under 60 kilograms, 60-66kg, 66-73kg, 73-81kg, 81-90kg, 90-100kg and over 100kg, and women's under 48kg, 48-52kg, 52-57kg, 57-63kg, 63-70kg, 70-78kg and over 78kg.
Judo's Four Medals
Men's contests last five minutes, women's four, and throwing opponents to the floor wins most matches. Judoka are divided into two pools by a draw and compete in a knockout tournament to decide gold and silver medal winners. Two bronze medals are awarded, with all the judoka who lost to the eventual semi-finalists given a second chance. The two best lucky losers challenge the beaten semi-finalists and the winners of those matches receive bronze medals.
The word judo first appears in the 1st century chronicles of Chinese emperor Kuang Wu. Ju means 'gentleness' or 'pliancy', and applies to the emphasis judo places on yielding to an opponent's strength to overcome them, rather than attempting to defeat them by force. Do means 'the way'.
Son of Jujitsu
The sport is derived from the older jujitsu. Judo schools began to develop techniques differing from jujitsu in the 19th century, and Dr Jigoro Kano combined these techniques and clarified the rules. Kano, a long-time member of the International Olympic Committee, stressed judo's philosophical principles and removed many of the dangerous parts of jujitsu. He developed Kodokan judo and opened his first school, or dojo, in 1882.
Judo spread slowly to other countries and the first international match, between the Japanese Budokwai School and a German national team, did not take place until 1926.
Taekwondo, which means 'the way of kicking and striking', is a Korean martial art. Both hands and feet are used to overcome an opponent, but the sport's trademark is its combination of kick movements.
Sydney Debut
It was a demonstration sport at the 1988 and 1992 Olympics, and became a full medal sport at the 2000 Games in Sydney. There are eight Olympic taekwondo events, with both men and women contesting four bodyweight classes: men's under 58kg, 58-68kg, 68-80 kg and over 80kg, and women's under 49kg, 49-57kg, 57-67kg and over 67kg.
A knockout tournament decides the gold and silver medals, and all competitors defeated by the two finalists compete for the bronze. To score contests, a point is awarded for each legitimate blow and a point is deducted for each penalty.
Korea has a variety of martial arts, but in 1955 a group of Korean martial arts leaders chose taekwondo as the definitive one in an attempt to promote the sport internationally. The Korean government recognised the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) as the legitimate governing body of the sport in 1973 and the first world championships were held in that year.
Rules of Olympic Modern Pentathlon and Triathlon
Triathlon is the youngest of all Olympic sports. It was invented by San Diego Track Club as an alternative workout, with the first known events held in 1974. The club's first triathlon comprised of a 10 kilometre run, 8km cycle and 500 metre swim.
Athletes must excel at three different pursuits - swimming, cycling and running - to master the triathlon, which is considered the ultimate endurance test. It means a demanding training schedule for those at the top of the sport.
Races are held over four different distances, named sprint, Olympic, long course and ultra. The Olympic triathlon comprises a 1.5 kilometre swim, 40km bike ride, and 10km run. Men will typically complete the course in around one hour 50 minutes, with women taking a little over two hours.
Non-stop Race
A mass start can lead to jostling for position during the swimming. Thereafter, the race is continuous and, as there are no stops between the three legs, changeovers from one discipline to the next are crucial to race strategy. Positions can change rapidly throughout the race, as athletes make up places during their stronger disciplines and fall back during weaker ones.
In 1989, the International Triathlon Union (ITU) was founded in France and the first official world championships took place. Triathlon made its Olympic debut at the Sydney Games in 2000, with Switzerland's Brigitte McMahon and Canada's Simon Whitfield, an outsider ranked 13th in the world, winning the first Olympic gold medals.
The pentathlon was held in high esteem by the Greeks during the ancient Games. When the sport was first held, at the 18th Olympiad in 708BC, it comprised of running the length of the stadium, jumping, spear throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The winner was hailed Victor Ludorum, Latin for winner of the games.
Test of Morals
The modern pentathlon was the brainchild of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics. It was introduced at the Stockholm Games in 1912 and comprised of pistol shooting, fencing, swimming, horse riding and running. De Coubertin believed the modern pentathlon "tested a man's moral qualities as much as his physical resources and skills, producing thereby the ideal, complete athlete."
Shooting is the first discipline, and the pentathletes have 40 seconds to fire 20 shots from an air pistol at a 17cm-square target from 10 metres. A round-robin fencing competition follows and then a 200m freestyle swim. In the show jumping ring, lots are drawn to pair pentathletes with horses drawn by lot before a course of 15 jumps is tackled. The climax is a 3000m run with a handicapped start that takes into account points accrued in the first four events. The first athlete across the finish line wins gold.
Between 1912 and 1980 the competition was held over five days and various experiments with a four-day format took place between 1984 and 1992. The existing one-day format was introduced in 1996 and four years later an event for women was added. In Beijing, the field was increased to 36 men and 36 women.
Athletes must excel at three different pursuits - swimming, cycling and running - to master the triathlon, which is considered the ultimate endurance test. It means a demanding training schedule for those at the top of the sport.
Races are held over four different distances, named sprint, Olympic, long course and ultra. The Olympic triathlon comprises a 1.5 kilometre swim, 40km bike ride, and 10km run. Men will typically complete the course in around one hour 50 minutes, with women taking a little over two hours.
Non-stop Race
A mass start can lead to jostling for position during the swimming. Thereafter, the race is continuous and, as there are no stops between the three legs, changeovers from one discipline to the next are crucial to race strategy. Positions can change rapidly throughout the race, as athletes make up places during their stronger disciplines and fall back during weaker ones.
In 1989, the International Triathlon Union (ITU) was founded in France and the first official world championships took place. Triathlon made its Olympic debut at the Sydney Games in 2000, with Switzerland's Brigitte McMahon and Canada's Simon Whitfield, an outsider ranked 13th in the world, winning the first Olympic gold medals.
The pentathlon was held in high esteem by the Greeks during the ancient Games. When the sport was first held, at the 18th Olympiad in 708BC, it comprised of running the length of the stadium, jumping, spear throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The winner was hailed Victor Ludorum, Latin for winner of the games.
Test of Morals
The modern pentathlon was the brainchild of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics. It was introduced at the Stockholm Games in 1912 and comprised of pistol shooting, fencing, swimming, horse riding and running. De Coubertin believed the modern pentathlon "tested a man's moral qualities as much as his physical resources and skills, producing thereby the ideal, complete athlete."
Shooting is the first discipline, and the pentathletes have 40 seconds to fire 20 shots from an air pistol at a 17cm-square target from 10 metres. A round-robin fencing competition follows and then a 200m freestyle swim. In the show jumping ring, lots are drawn to pair pentathletes with horses drawn by lot before a course of 15 jumps is tackled. The climax is a 3000m run with a handicapped start that takes into account points accrued in the first four events. The first athlete across the finish line wins gold.
Between 1912 and 1980 the competition was held over five days and various experiments with a four-day format took place between 1984 and 1992. The existing one-day format was introduced in 1996 and four years later an event for women was added. In Beijing, the field was increased to 36 men and 36 women.
Sailing Classes at the Olympics
In a way, sailing made its Games debut at Sydney in 2000, when it became the first Olympic sport to change its name. Up until then it had always been called yachting and it was under that title that it was introduced in 1900.
Bigger boats, with as many as 10 to 12 sailors, dominated the early Olympics, but since 1924 the trend has been towards smaller, one-design boats with fewer crew members. At the 2004 Games in Athens, only one event - Yngling - had a three-person crew and lone sailors contested five events.
The current Olympic programme features a mix of boats. Some - like the 49er - reflect design and technology advances, while others - like the Star and Finn - have a long and distinguished history.
Men and women have always competed side-by-side in Olympic sailing, but since 1988 there have been sailing events exclusively for women. The Olympic sailing programme in Beijing included four men's, four women's and three open events: the men's 470 two-person dinghy, RS:X windsurfer, Laser one-person dinghy, Star keelboat, women's 470 two-person dinghy, RS:X windsurfer, Laser Radial one-person dinghy, Yngling keelboat, mixed 49er skiff, Finn heavyweight dinghy and Tornado multihull.
Flying the Flag
Fleets of well-matched boats - identified on the water by national flags on sails and the crew names on the mainsail - race around courses that incorporate various sailing angles and are designed to test upwind, downwind and reaching techniques. Events consists of a 10-race opening series - 15 for the 49er - with each race governed by International Sailing Federation (ISAF) rules and scheduled to last between 30 and 75 minutes depending on the event.
Scores are awarded according to finishing positions in each race, and the 10 leading boats at the end of the opening series qualify for the medal race, held on a shorter course. Points scored in the medal race are doubled and added to the opening series' scores to decide the top 10.
The power of the wind and the waves has been harnessed as a means of transport since antiquity, but international yacht racing began in 1851 when a syndicate of members of the New York Yacht Club built a 101-foot schooner named America.
America's Reign
The yacht was sailed to England where it won a race around the Isle of Wight for a trophy called the Hundred Guineas Cup. The trophy was renamed The America's Cup and it remained in the hands of the United States of America until 1983, when an Australian yacht, named Australia II, finally brought to an end the New York Yacht Club's 132-year winning streak.
The first step in developing the worldwide sport of sailing was the creation of the International Yacht Racing Union in 1907. Sailing has developed rapidly over the last 100 years, aided by an ever-increasing range of materials and designs. Mass-produced, one-design boats have seen the sport spread to all corners of the globe, while the development of multihulls, skiffs and windsurfers has pushed back the boundaries for sailing's thrill-seekers.
Bigger boats, with as many as 10 to 12 sailors, dominated the early Olympics, but since 1924 the trend has been towards smaller, one-design boats with fewer crew members. At the 2004 Games in Athens, only one event - Yngling - had a three-person crew and lone sailors contested five events.
The current Olympic programme features a mix of boats. Some - like the 49er - reflect design and technology advances, while others - like the Star and Finn - have a long and distinguished history.
Men and women have always competed side-by-side in Olympic sailing, but since 1988 there have been sailing events exclusively for women. The Olympic sailing programme in Beijing included four men's, four women's and three open events: the men's 470 two-person dinghy, RS:X windsurfer, Laser one-person dinghy, Star keelboat, women's 470 two-person dinghy, RS:X windsurfer, Laser Radial one-person dinghy, Yngling keelboat, mixed 49er skiff, Finn heavyweight dinghy and Tornado multihull.
Flying the Flag
Fleets of well-matched boats - identified on the water by national flags on sails and the crew names on the mainsail - race around courses that incorporate various sailing angles and are designed to test upwind, downwind and reaching techniques. Events consists of a 10-race opening series - 15 for the 49er - with each race governed by International Sailing Federation (ISAF) rules and scheduled to last between 30 and 75 minutes depending on the event.
Scores are awarded according to finishing positions in each race, and the 10 leading boats at the end of the opening series qualify for the medal race, held on a shorter course. Points scored in the medal race are doubled and added to the opening series' scores to decide the top 10.
The power of the wind and the waves has been harnessed as a means of transport since antiquity, but international yacht racing began in 1851 when a syndicate of members of the New York Yacht Club built a 101-foot schooner named America.
America's Reign
The yacht was sailed to England where it won a race around the Isle of Wight for a trophy called the Hundred Guineas Cup. The trophy was renamed The America's Cup and it remained in the hands of the United States of America until 1983, when an Australian yacht, named Australia II, finally brought to an end the New York Yacht Club's 132-year winning streak.
The first step in developing the worldwide sport of sailing was the creation of the International Yacht Racing Union in 1907. Sailing has developed rapidly over the last 100 years, aided by an ever-increasing range of materials and designs. Mass-produced, one-design boats have seen the sport spread to all corners of the globe, while the development of multihulls, skiffs and windsurfers has pushed back the boundaries for sailing's thrill-seekers.